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Biology 111, Fall 2009
Principles of Biology (BIOL 111)
| DATE | LECTURE | CHAPTER | |
| W | 8/25 | Ten Themes in the Study of Life | 1 |
| Th | 8/26 | Ten Themes in the Study of Life | 1 |
| F | 8/27 | The Chemical Context of Life | 2 |
| M | 8/30 | The Chemical Context of Life | 2 |
| W | 9/1 | Water and The Fitness of the Environment | 3 |
| Th | 9/2 | Excel Tutorial | |
| F | 9/4 | Water and The Fitness of the Environment | 3 |
| M | 9/6 | Labor Day (No classes) | |
| W | 9/8 | Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life | 4 |
| Th | 9/9 | Chemical Principles worksheet Writing Center (doing Lab Reports), CareerCenter |
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| F | 9/10 | Structure and Function of Macromolecules | 5 |
| M | 9/13 | Metabolism | 5,6 |
| W | 9/15 | A Tour of the Cell | 7 |
| Th | 9/16 | Exam I | |
| F | 9/17 | A Tour of the Cell | 7 |
| M | 9/20 | A Tour of the Cell | 7 |
| W | 9/22 | Membrane Structure and Function | 8 |
| Th | 9/23 | Plaigiarism,Benjamin Head, CBU Library | |
| F | 9/24 | Membrane Structure and Function | |
| M | 9/27 | Cellular Respiration | 9 |
| W | 9/29 | Krebs, Electron Transport | 9 |
| Th | 9/30 | Cellular Respiration Work Sheet Learning Styles Worksheet |
|
| F | 10/1 | Fermentation, Photosynthesis | 9,10 |
| M | 10/4 | Photosynthesis | 10 |
| W | 10/6 | The Cell Cycle | 12 |
| Th | 10/7 | EXAM II | |
| F | 10/8 | Mitosis | 12 |
| M | 10/11 | Mitosis | 12 |
| W | 10/13 | Meiosis | 13 |
| Th | 10/14 | Dr. Margie Miller (Learning Styles) | |
| F | 10/15 | Mendel and the Gene Idea | 14 |
| Fall Break ---------- Oct. 18-22 | |||
| M | 10/25 | Mendel and the Gene Idea | 14 |
| W | 10/27 | Sex Linkage, Chromosomal Disorders | 15 |
| Th | 10/28 | Discerning Popular vs. Scientific
Literature Searching the Internet |
|
| F | 10/29 | DNA Structure and Synthesis | 16 |
| M | 11/1 | DNA Synthesis | 16 |
| W | 11/3 | RNA and Transcription | 17 |
| Th | 11/4 | EXAM III | |
| F | 11/5 | Translation | 17 |
| M | 11/8 | Viral Genstics | 18 |
| W | 11/10 | Bacterial Genetic | 18 |
| Th | 11/11 | Film The Dilemma of Genetic Testing | |
| F | 11/12 | Control of Eukaryotic Genomes | 19 |
| M | 11/15 | DNA Technology and Genomics | 20 |
| W | 11/17 | DNA Technology and Genomics 20 | 20 |
| Th | 11/18 | Evolution Article Discussion | |
| F | 11/19 | A Darwinian View of Life | 22 |
| M | 11/22 | A Darwinian View of Life | 22 |
| W | 11/24 | The Evolution of Populations | 23 |
| Th | 11/25 | Thanksgiving Break | |
| F | 11/26 | Thanksgiving Break | |
| M | 11/29 | The Evolution of Populations The Origin of Species |
23 24 |
| W | 12/1 | Phylogeny and Systematics | 25 |
| Th | 12/2 | EXAM IV | |
| F | 12/3 | The Origin of Life | 26 |
| M | 12/6 | Prokaryotes and Evolution of MetabolicDiversity | 27 |
| W | 12/8 | Kingdom Protista | 28 |
| Th | 12/9 | Protists, Fungi | 28,31 |
| F | 12/10 | Fungi | 31 |
| Final ExamsDec. 13 - 17 | |||
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Lecture Outline
Chapter 1
I. Ten Themes in the Study of Life
To be added later
II. Characterististics of Living Things
* Why are viruses not considered living things?
1. Response to stimuli
2. Cells
3. Metabolism
a) Catabolism
b) Anabolism
4. Growth and Development
a) Growth in size
b) Growth in cell #
5. Reproduce
a) Sexual b) Asexual
6. Species evolve
-Natural selection via survival of the fittest
7. Homeostasis
III. Taxonomy
1. Binomial Nomenclature due to Linnaeus
2. Genus namehow written?
3. Species name.how written?
4.
IV. Scientific Method
1. Hypothesis
3. Theory
3. Controls
Chapter 2 Chemical Context of Life
I. Chemical Concepts
1. Atomic particles:
a) Protons
b) Neutrons
c) Electrons
2. Electron shells
a) How many to make a full inner shell?
b) How many to make a full outer shell?
3. Terms
a) Atomic #
b) Atomic mass
4. Bonds
a) Ionic
b) Covalent
i. Polar = hydrophilic (Why?)
ii. Nonpolar = hydrophpobic (Why?)
3. H-Bonds (very weak individually)
5. Hydrophobic Interactions
Chapter 3 Water and the fitness of the Environment
I. Properties of Water
a) Know bonding characteristics
b) Cohesiveness/Adhesiveness
c) Solvent Properties
d) Helps stabilize environmental temp.
*high heat of vaporization
e) Maximum density at 4 degrees C
f) What concentration of H+ and OH- are found in water?
-Why is pH 7 called neutral?
II. pH Measurements
1. Define pH
2. Acids
a) Proton donors
b) Yield an anion and H+ in water
3. Bases
a) Proton acceptors
b) Yield a cation and OH- in water
4. How are salts formed?
-Define electrolyte
5. Buffers=resist pH change
a) Carbonic acid/bicarbonate buffer
i. Weak acid
ii. Weak base
b) How does equilibrium shift if:
I. Excess H+ is added?
ii. Excess OH- is added?
III. Redox rxns (LEO the lion GERS)
1. Oxidation
a) Loss of electrons
b) In biological systems ----> loss of H2
2. Reduction
a) Gain of electrons
b) In biological systems ---> gain of H2
Chapter 4 Carbon and the Diversity of Life
Organic Molecules
1. Bonding properties of Carbon
a) 6 electrons
b) Binds covalently to 4 hydrogens
2. Some organic molecules:
a) Methane/methanol (1C)
b) Ethane/ethanol (2C)
c) Propane/propanol (3C)
3. Functional Groups
a) Hydroxyl
b) Carboxyl
c) Amino
d) Methyl
e) Phosphate
Chapter 5 Structure and Function of Macromolecules
I. Macromolecules
A. Carbohydrates
1. Monosaccharide Ex) Glucose
a)Simple sugar (6C)
*Be able to show ring structure and explain
b) Monomer
2. Disaccharides
a)Two sugar mole. covalently linked
b) Simple sugars
3. Polysaccharides
a) Complex sugars
b) Many are polymers of glucose:
i. Starch ii. Glycogen
- Both have an alpha (1-4) bond
- Both digested by amylase
iii. Cellulose = beta (1-4) bond
- Broken down by cellulase
- Ex) Termite + protozoan
*mutualistic relationship
B. Proteins
1. Amino Acids = Monomers
*20 different amino acids
2. Structural Organization
a) 1o Structure
i. Linear amino acid sequence
- Polypeptide
ii. Peptide bond
b) 2o Structure (H-bonds)
i. Alpha Helix
ii. Beta pleated sheet
c) 3o Structure
i. Folding of polypeptide
ii. intrachain disulfides
iii. hydrophobic interactions
d) 4o Structure
i. More than one polypeptide
ii. interchain disulfides
C. Nucleic Acids
1. Monomer = Nucleotide
-Phoshate - Sugar - Base
2. DNA = double stranded
3. RNA = single stranded
D Lipids
1. Neutral fats (Triglycerides)
a) Glycerol and Fatty acids
b) Why not true polymers?
c) Unsaturated fats
i.Some double bonds in FA chains
ii. What other characteristics?
d) Saturated
i. No double bonds
ii. What other characteristics?
2. Most are very nonpolar/hydrophobic
*due mostly to what part of the molecule?
3. Phospholipids = amphipathic
a) Polar phosphate group (head)
b) Non-polar FA tails
c) Liposomes
i. Form a bilayer in water
2. Be able to explain how heads and tails oriented in bilayer
Chapter 6 Metabolism
I. Enzymes
a) Catalysts
b) Enz + Substrate ---> [ES]----> E + P
c) Active site has "specificty" for substrate --Lock and Key Model
d) How are most enzymes named?
e) Optimal Conditions
i. Temperature
-What does boiling do?
- Why does increasing the temp. (up to a pt.), increase enzyme activity?
ii. pH
-How can a pH change disrupt E + S binding?
II. Activation Energy (AE)
1. Amount needed determines rxn. rate
2. AE lower with enzyme present
3. Be able to reproduce graph done in class
- If E of products lower than reactants ---> exergonic rxn.
- If E of products higher than reactants ---> endergonic rxn.
III. Allosteric Enzymes
1. Active site binds substrate
2. Allosteric site binds regulator
a) Can be inhibitor
b) Can be enhance
c) Causes active site to change shape
3. Metabolic pathway:
a) 1st enzyme is allosteric
b) Final product inhibits 1st enzyme in pathway
-Acts as an inhibitory regulator
c) A way to save energy
IV. Two ways to regulate enzyme activity
1. Phosphorylation
2. Allosteric enzymes
Chapter 7 A tour of the Cell
I. Cellular Structures
A. Robert Hooke ?
-Who was he?
B. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
- What are the differences?
C. Cytoplasm/Cytosol
-What's the difference?
D. Nucleus -
1. Nuclear envelope
a) Double membrane
-What is outer membrane continuous with?
b) Nuclear pores
-Transit of molecules in and out of nucleus
2. Nucleolus = no membrane
a) Synthesis of rRNA
b) Partial assembly of ribosomes occurs here
c) Location of genes for rRNA
3. Chromatin (material for chromosomes)
a) DNA
b) RNA
c) Protein
E. Ribosomes
1. Synthesis of proteins in cytosol
2. Located on E.R.
-What types of proteins are made here?
3. Also located free in cytoplasm
-What types of proteins are made here?
4. Contain rRNA and Protein
-Made up of two subunits when active
F. Endoplasmic reticulum (E.R.)
1. System of membranous tubes
2. Rough (RER)
a) Transport of proteins through cell
i. Secreted proteins
ii. Membrane-bound proteins
iii. Lysosomal proteins
b) Transport vesicles form from RER to Golgi
3. Smooth (SER)
No ribosomes
a) Detoxification enzymes
b) Lipid synthesis
G. Golgi Complex
1. Cisternae = Membrane stacks
2. Functions:
a) Targeting and packaging of secreted proteins
b) Acid hydrolases packaged
c) Glycosylation (Glycoproteins)
3. Secretory vesicles bud from Golgi
a) Fuse with plasma membrane
b) Exocytosis
H. Lysosomes
1. Contain Acid Hydrolases
-digestive enzymes
2. Digestion of nutrients
3. Recycling of cell materials
4. Vesicles bud from Golgi then fuse to form Lyso.
I.Endomembrane System:
1. Secreted and Memb.-bound proteins:
Ribosomes --> RER lumen --> Transport vesicles --> Golgi --> Secretory vesicles --> Plasma membrane --> Exocytosis
2. Acid Hydrolases
Ribosomes --> RER lumen --> Transport vesicles --> Golgi --> Lysosomes
J. Vacuoles
1. Storage of water, starch, etc.
2. Most often in plants and protozoans
K. Mitochondria (ATP Synthesis)
1. Outer and inner membrane
2. Inner membrane
i.Cristae
ii.Enzymes for ATP synthesis
3. Matrix
a) DNA and Ribosomes
b) Enzymes for aerobic respiration
L. Peroxisomes
1. Enzymes for breakdown of fatty acids
2. Generation of H2O2
- can be toxic to cell
3. Peroxidase breaks down H2O2
M. Cytoskeleton
1. Functions:
a) Shape of cell
b) Support of cell
c) Mobility of cell
2. Actin Microfilaments (7 nm diameter)
a) Smallest components
b) Provide mechanical stability & cell movement
c) Composed of actin and associated proteins ? two strands formed
d) Assembly/Disassembly
3. Intermediate filaments, 8 ?10 nm diameter
a) Intermediate size component
b) Made of a variety of protein fibers
c) Mechanical stress (where found)
4. Microtubules (25 nm dia.)
a) Largest components
b) Hollow tubes of the protein tubulin
c) Function:
i. Spindle at mitosis
ii. Make up cilia and flagella
iii. Movement of organelles due to kinesin
d) Assembly/Disassembly
II. Microscopy
1. Compound light microscope (know limits of resolution)
2. TEM and SEM (know limits of resolution)
Chapter 8 Membrane Structure and Function
A. History
1. Gortner and Grendel (1925)
a) RBC membrane lipid extraction
b) Conclusion: Lipid bilayer
c) Why was it lucky RBCs were used?
2. Singer and Nicholson (1972)
-Developed Fluid-Mosaic Model
B. FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
1. Phospholipids in membrane
a) Phospholipid Heads
i. Hydrophilic
ii. Next to aqueous environment
b) Fatty acid tails
i. Hydrophobic
ii. Interior of membrane
c) Be able to draw and label a phopholipid molecule.
d) Sugars always on outside
2. Proteins in Membrane
a) Integral Membrane Proteins
i. Amphipathic
ii.Hard to remove (use detergent)
iv. No flip-flop but lateral movement O.K.
v. Most are transmembrane
b) Peripheral Membrane Proteins
i.Hydrophilic (bound to Integral)
ii. Easy to remove (change ionic strength of buffer)
C. Cell Fusion Experiment
1. Membrane proteins labeled with fluorescent dye
2. Fuse mouse with human cell
3. Results?
4. Conclusion = lateral movement of proteins in membrane can occur
II. Cellular Exchange
A. Simple Diffusion
1. Define
2. Be able to explain graph
B. Osmosis
1. Diffusion of water across semi-permeable memb. From higher to lower concentration
2. Example = U-tube experiment
3. What is osmotic pressure?
4. Osmosis around cells
a) Isotonic Soln.
b) Hypotonic Soln.
-Cell lysis --- Why?
c) Hypertonic Soln.
-Plasmolysis --- Why?
d) "Hyper Children Hypothesize Badly"
C. Mol. Passing into Cell by Diffusion
1. Small
2. Uncharged
3. Lipid soluble
D. Carrier - Mediated Transport
1. Carrier molecules in membrane necessary to get solute into cell
2. Be able to explain graph
3. Facilitated Diffusion
a) No energy necessary
b) Solute moves with gradient
4. Active Transport
a) Ex: Na+/K+ ATPase pump
i. 3 Na+ out
ii. Two K+ in
b) Energy required
-ATP hydrolysis occurs
c) Solute moves against gradient
-Endergonic process
5. What is an ionophore?
E. Cellular Uptake (Endocytosis)
a) Pinocytosis
i.Small molecules in solution
ii. Taken in through folds in membrane
b) Phagocytosis
i.Large, insoluble molecules
ii. Pseudopodia surround
iii. Phagocytic vacuole + 1o lysosome fuse
c) Receptor - Med. Endocytosis
i. LDL = Cholesterol carrier
ii. LDL receptor binds LDL on cell surface
iii. Clathrin coated pits & vesicles
iv. Uncoating of clathrin coated pit ----------->Endosome
-Decrease in pH leads to?
v. Know fate of following:
-LDL, LDL receptor
-Clathrin pit and vesicle
-Endosome
-Cholesterol
F. Intercellular Junctions
1. Tight Junctions
a) Protein zipper between cell membranes
b) Prevent leakage between cells
c) Where found?
2. Gap Junction
a) Connects neighboring cells
b) Tunnel through which small molecules can pass
Purpose = rapid communication between cells
Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration
A. ATP
1. ATP hydrolysis is exergonic
ATP + H20 ----------> ADP + Pi + E
2. Exergonic rxns. coupled with endergonic rxns in cell
3. Know structure of ATP and ADP
-especially high E phosphate bonds
4. Phosphorylation
-Covalent attachment of phosphate to an organic molecule
B. Cofactors
1. Two types
a) Metal ions
b) Coenzymes = organic mol.
i.Examples = NAD+, FAD, Vitamin B complex
ii. Transfer agents
2. NAD+
a) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
b) Oxidized = NAD+
c) Reduced = NADH
-Carries 2 electrons and one proton
C. Four Pathways in Aerobic Respiration
1. Glycolysis
2. Acetyl CoA Formation
3. Krebs Cycle
4. Electron Transport Chain
D. Identify Types of Reactions
1. Decarboxylation
2. Phosphorylation
3. Oxidation/Reduction
E. Glycolysis
1. Oxidation (breakdown)of glucose
2. Glucose (6C) ------> 2 Pyruvate (3 C)
3. In cytosol
4. Produces:
a) 2 ATP and 2 NADH
i. NADH equal to 4 ATP
ii. Why is 1 NADH here, equal to only 2 ATP?
b) Total = 6 ATP/ Glucose
-In cells with mitochondria
F. Acetyl CoA Production in Mitochondrial Matrix
1. 2 Pyruvate (3C) + 2CoA (2C) ---> 2 Acetyl CoA (4C)
2. Decarboxylation (yields 2 CO2)
3. Produces 2 NADH
a) Each equal to 3 ATP
-Why three?
b) 6 ATP total
G. Krebs Cycle in Mito. Matrix
1. Why called a cycle?
2 Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetate -------> Citric Acid
(2C) (4C) (6C)
3. Two decarboxylations
4. One GTP made = 1 ATP
5. Three NADH made = 9 ATP
6. One FADH2 made = 2 ATP
-Why is FADH2 only worth 2 ATP?
7. Multiply total # of E molecules by two since Glucose yields 2 Acetyl CoA molecules
H. Electron Transport Chain
1. Electron Shuttles
a) Shuttle takes 2e- from NADH
-made via glycolysis
b) Passes 2e- to inner mitochondrial membrane
- at level of complex 2
c) 1 NADH worth only 2 ATP
-Requires energy to move e- across Mito. membrane
2. NADH produced by Krebs and Acetyl CoA synthesis:
a) Worth 3 ATP
b) Passes 2e- and H+ to Complex 1
3. FADH2 = 2 ATP
-passes e- off at Complex 2
4. Electron carriers are integral proteins in inner Mito. membrane
5. O2 = final electron acceptor
2H+ + 2e- + 1/2 O2------> H2O
6. Series of reductions and oxidations as electrons are passed thru chain
7. Cytochromes
a) Electron transport proteins
b) When oxidized, turn pink
c) Carry only electrons
8. Energy released by e- passage from carrier to carrier
I. Chemiosmosis
1. Couples e- Transport to ATP synthesis
2.Process:
a) H+ pushed into intermembrane space due to E release
-Go thru electron carriers
b) Proton gradient builds in intermembrane space
c) H+ rush back thru ATP synthase
-Conformational change in enzyme
d) Drives phosphorylation of ADP to ATP
J. Control of ATP synthesis
1. ATP/ADP ratio low:
a) Many endergonic rxns. in cell
-Exercise
b) Respiration speeds up
2. ATP/ADP ratio high
a) Few endergonic rxns. occuring
-Resting
b) Not much ATP being used
c) Respiration slows down
K. Poisons
1. Uncouplers
a) Separate e- transport from ATP synthesis
b) H+ do not re-enter matrix thru ATP Synthase
c) Create heat but no ATP
d) DNP = poison
e) Hibernating animals can uncouple
2. Cyanide
a) Binds to complex #3
b) Stops e- transport
-electrons stack up on e- trans. chain
c) NADH can't unload
d) No citric acid cycle or glycolysis
e) Breathing speeds up
-Why?
L. Anaerobic Respiration
1. Oxygen not used due to:
a) Not enough O2 present or
b) No electron transport chain in cell
2. Glycolysis occurs
a) Get 2 net ATP
b) Get 2 NADH but cannot use this for ATP since no ETC
3. Two fermentation pathways
a)Ethanol (2C) fermentation
i.Yeast can provide enzymes
ii.Decarboxylation (CO2)
iii.Purpose = regenerate NAD+
b)Lactic Acid (3 C)fermentation
i. Lactobacillus
-Breaks down lactose in milk
-pH drops and milk sours
ii. Muscle cells
-Produce lactic acid under anaerobic conditions
-Muscle soreness
iii. Purpose = regenerate NAD+
4.Since only 2 ATP produced per glucose under anaerobic conditions, its inefficient
Chapter 121 Mitosis
I. Cell Cycle
A. Gap I Phase
1. Growth of Cell
2. Synthesis of cell components
3. Gap 1 Arrest or Go
a) Some cells ignore
- Which ones?
b) Most adult cells obey
B. Synthesis Phase
1. DNA Replication
2. Chromatids ----------> Chromosomes
C. Gap 2 Phase
1. Synthesis of:
a) Cyclins
b) Tubulin for spindle
2. Cyclins bind cyclin-dependent protein kinases
a) Formation of Mitosis-promotiong factor
b) Phophorylation of various proteins leading to beginning of mitosis
c) Cyclins degraded toward end of mitosis
-Cell exits mitosis
D. Mitosis Overview
1. Karyokinesis
-splitting of chromosomes into chromatids
2. Cytokinesis
-splitting of cytoplasm into two cells
3. Purpose
a) Development
b) Growth
c) Wound healing
II. Chromosomes
1. Contain DNA + protein + RNA = Chromatin
2. Centromere consists of 2 Kinetochores
3. Chromatid vs. Chromosomes
*Know difference
4. Karyotype
a) How done:
i.WBCs
ii. Stimulate mitosis
iii. Stop at metaphase
-Maximally condensed
iv. Burst cells in hypotonic soln.
v. Photograph good chrom. spread
vi. Pair homologs side-by-side
b) Arrangement of chromosomes by
i.Length
ii. Position of centromere
- Metacentric
- Submetacentric
- Acrocentric
III. Auxiliary Structures
A. Spindle
1. Polar microtubules
2. Kinetochore microtubules
B. Centrioles
1. Only in animal cells
2. Two side-by-side in non-dividing cell
3. Surrounded by MTOC (Microtubule Organizing Center)
-What is this?
C. Asters
1. Extend from MTOC
2. Halo of microtubules
IV. Phases of Mitosis
A. Prophase
a) Nuclear memb. disappears
b) Nucleoli disappear
c) Spindle formation
d) Centrioles migrate to poles
e) Chrom. condensation
b) Prometaphase (late) = Chrom. move toward center of cell
B. Metaphase
1. Chromosomes most condensed at this pt.
2. Line up at equator
C. Anaphase Movement
1. Chromatids separate
2. Chromatids go to poles
i. Kinetochore microtubules shorten
-Tubulin may be removed at kinetochore
ii. Spindle elongates
-Polar microtubules may lengthen in middle of spindle
D. Telophase = Cytokinesis
1. Plants = cell plate or phragmoplast
2. Animals = cleavage furrow
Chapter 13 Meiosis
A. Chromosome Number
1. Diploid (2N)
- Full chrom. set
2. Haploid (1N)
- Half of chrom. set
B. Purpose
1. Occurs in gamete precursors
2. Keeps chrom. # constant in preparation for fertilization
C. Two Divisions:
1) Reductional Division (2N ---->1N)
2) Equational Division (1N ----->1N)
D.Spermatogenesis
1. One Primary Spermatocyte (2N)
a) Prophase I
i.Much like Prophase of mitosis except...
ii. Homologs line up (Synapsis)
-Synaptonemal complex forms (What is its function?)
iii. Homologs crossover (What is the function of xing over?)
b) Metaphase I
- Homologs equidistant from equator
c) Anaphase I
i. Homologs separate
ii.Independent Assortment occurs
-Shuffling of homologs
-End up with many combinations of maternal and paternal homologs in each gamete
d) Telophase I
-May not go to completion
e) Interkinesis
i. Very short
ii. May or may not occur
2. Two Secondary Spermatocytes (1N)
a) Prophase II
b) Metaphase II
c) Anaphase II
-Separation of Chromatids
d) Telophase II
3. Four spermatids produced
4. Maturation to 4 mature sperm
E. Oogenesis
a) Meiosis I
i.Start with primary oocyte
ii. Production of secondary oocyte and one polar body
-both 1N
b) Meiosis II
i.Production of 2 polar bodies from original polar body (1N)
ii. From secondary oocyte:
- One ootid (1N) which matures into an ovum
- One polar body (1N)
c) Why does unequal cytoplasmic division occur?
F. Sources of Genetic Variation
1. Crossing Over
-End up with different combinations of alleles on chromosomes
2. Independent Assortment
a) Different combinations of homologs in gametes
b) Number of combinations = 2N
-Where N = # of chrom. prs.
3. Fertilization in humans
- 8 million potential sperm x 8 million potential eggs)
G. Contrast Mitosis to Meiosis
Chapter 10 Photosynthesis
I. Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration
A. Photosynthesis:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + ATP ----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
B. Cellular Respiration :
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O --------> 6CO2 + 12 H2O + ATP
C.State the Similarities b/ Chloroplasts and Mitochondr.
II. Leaf Structures
A. Stomata
1. Guard Cells control opening
2. CO2 in and H2O out when open
B. Cells in leaf
1. Upper epidermis and Lower epidermis
a) Secrete waxy cuticle
b) No photosynthesis
2. Photosynthetic cells
a) Mesophyll (Palisade and Spongy)
b) Guard Cells
C. Structure of Choloroplast
1. Chloroplast envelope = Double Membrane
2. Grana (stack of Thylakoids)
3. Thylakoid consists of:
a) Chlorophyll
b) Thylakoid interior
c) e- transport proteins in thylakoid membrane
4. Stroma = enzymes for:
a) Photolysis
b) Calvin Cycle
III. Light-Dependent Reaction
A. Electromagnetic radiation
1. Particles travel in waves
2. From top of one wave to next is one wavelength
-measured in nm
3. Color Spectrum
a) Different wavelengths of light
b) Different substances absorb and reflect light at various wavelengths
c) Reflected light stimulates photoreceptors in our retina
B. Light Energy
1. Photons = particles of light
2. Ultimate source for earth = sun
3. Excites e- from chlorophyll
C. Chlorophyll a and b
1. Both found in chloroplast
2. Both absorb light at two wavelengths
3. approx. what are these wavelengths?
D. Absorption Spectra
1. Peaks assoc. with absorption of light by chlorophyll
2. Two peaks for chl. a
3. Two peaks for chl.b
E. Action Spectrum
1.Shows all wavelengths of light which produce photosyn.
2. Other pigments involved
a) Ex: Carotenoids
b) What affect do these have on Action Spectrum?
F. Photosystems (PS)
1. Antenna Complexes
a) 200 - 300 chlorophyll molecules/unit
b) in thylakoid membrane
2. Reaction Center Chlorophylls
a) P700 (PS I rxn. center)
b) P680 (PS II rxn. center)
c) Act as an antennae for e- excited by light
d) Pass e- to electron transport proteins
3. Photolysis = splitting of water by enzymes in stroma
- electrons drawn to P680
4. Molecules synthesized:
a) ATP via Chemiosmosis
i. H+ pumped into thylakoid interior
ii. H+ rush out and activate ATP synthase
iii. Occurs during PSII
b) NADPH made at end of PSI
IV. Calvin Cycle
A. Characteristics
1. Carbon Fixation
- CO2 captured as a carbon source
2. Purpose = generates a 6C sugar for structural and functional molecules
3. Start with 6 RuBP and 6 CO2
4. Not directly dependent on light
5. Uses ATP and NADPH from Light Rxn
a) Uses ATP for Phosphorylation of intermediates
- generates ADP
b) Uses NADPH for Reduction of intermediates
- generate NADP
B. Be able to diagram the Cycle
1. 6 RuBP (5C)+ 6CO2
-Catalyzed by Rubisco
2. 12 PGA (3C)
3. 12 G3P (3C)converted to:
a) One (6C sugar)
b) Six RuP
4. Back to Six RuBP
5. How much ATP required for synthesis of one 6C sugar?
6. How much NADPH required for synthesis of one 6C sugar?
C. Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM)
1. Plants living in very dry conditions
-Xeric plants
2. Stomata open only at night
- Decreases water loss
3. Fix CO2 at night
a) Form malate
b) Store in vacuole
4. During day CO2 removed from malate
-Light Indep. rxn. occurs despite fact that stomata closed
Chapter 14 Mendel and the Gene IDEA
I. Gregor Mendel
-Who was he?
II. Terms
1. Gene 5. Dominant
2. Genotype 6. Homozygous
3. Phenotype 7. Heterozygous
4. Recessive 8. Allele
III. Crosses
A. Monohybrid Cross
1. Do thru F2 and know ratio
2. Always include phenotypes
3. Always assume parents homozygous
B. Do Dihybrid Cross
-Same rules as above
Chapter 15 Sex Linkage, Chromosomal Disorders
I. Sex Linkage
1. Male = Hemizygous
-Why?
2. Sex linked genes = only on X-chromosome
3. Do sex linked cross
a) See rules above
b) Gene often passes from grandfather to daughter to grandson
c) How are females w/ sex-linked phenotypes produced?
II. Dosage Compensation
1. Only in females mostly
2. One X randomly inactivated in every cell
a) During embryonic develop.
b) Barr body
3. Why would this produce a calico cat?
4. Why do we call it dosage compensation
III. Aneuploidy (Change in chrom. #)
1. Trisomy = 3 of the same homolog in an individual's cells
-Ex) Down Syndrome
2. Monosomy = only1 homolog in an individual's cells
-Turner's Syndrome = XO
3. Nondisjunction
a) 2 gametes w/ 1 extra homolog or
b) 2 gametes missing a homolog
Chapter 16 DNA Structure and Synthesis
I. DNA Structure
A. Watson & Crick (1953)
1. Predicted DNA structure
2. Predicted DNA replication by semi-conservative mode
-One strand is the template for a new strand
3. Based on x-ray diffraction data of Rosalind Franklin
B. DNA Nucleotide (Be able to draw)
1. Deoxyribose sugar (5C)
-No 2' OH
2. Phosphate group at 5' C
3. Base at 1' Carbon
C. Complementary Bases
1. A + T (2 H-bonds)
2. C + G (3 H-bonds)
3. Bases form rungs of ladder
4. H bonds hold two strands together
D. Neighboring nucleotides
1. Joined by phosphodiester bond
2. Added in 5' ---> 3' direction
-5' phos. of free nucleotide + 3'OH of growing strand
E. Double Helix
1. Two strands
2. Anti-parallel to each other
3. Wrapped in a double helix
II. Meselson and Stahl Experiment
1. 15N and then 14N added to bacterial media
- Incorporated into DNA bases of bacteria
2. Isolate DNA from bacteria
3. Gradient density centrifugation of DNA
a) CsCl forms gradient
b) DNA migrates tp place where its density is equivalent to CsCl
4. Proved semi-conservative replication
a) Not Conservative
b) How did it prove this?
III. DNA Replication
A. Continuous replication
1. Leading strand (Replication 5' ----> 3')
-Synthesized in direction of fork movement
2. Proteins involved (Know functions)
a) Unwinding enzymes ( DNA helicase)
b) Helix destabilizing proteins
c) Primase (Protein aggregate)
i.Production of RNA primer
ii. ~5 nucleotides
d) DNA Polymerase III = Forms phosphodiester bond between 3' OH of RNA primer and 5' phos. of DNA nucleotide
-Synthesizes newDNA strand
e) DNA Polym. I = Excises primer and replaces them with new DNA
B. Discontinuous replication
1. Lagging strand ( 5' -----> 3')
-Synthesized in opposite direction of fork movement
2. Proteins involved
a) Unwinding enzymes ( DNA helicase)
b) Helix destabilizing proteins
c) Primase
d) DNA Polymerase I and III
f) DNA Ligase = Attaches 3' OH of Okazaki to 5' phosphate of new DNA
3. Okazaki fragments
a) ~1000 nucleotide fragments
b) DNA pieces between RNA primer
C. Replicons
1. Due to bidirectionality of replication
2. 2 replic. forks at each end
3. Replication stops when replicons run into each other
IV. Garrod Hypothesis
1. AKU (Alkaptonuria)
a) Homogentistic acid not broken down
b) Urine black
c) Joint pain
2. Inborn error of metabolism (mutant enzyme)
V. Chromosome Packaging
1. Nucleosomes (beads on a string)
a) 8 Histones
b) DNA
2. Solenoids held together by scaffolding proteins
3. Helps organize genetic material in cell
Chapter 17 RNA and Transcription
I. RNA
RNA structure vs. DNA structure
1. Ribose instead of deoxyribose
2. Uracil instead of thymine
3. Single stranded
4.
II. Transcription (DNA used as template for RNA)
1. RNA Polymerase
2. Synthesized 5' to 3'
3. Unwinding at site of gene being transcribed
4. Promoter (TATA Box)
a) Recognition site for RNA Polymerase
b) 3' to starting pt.on DNA strand
c) 5' to RNA being transcribed
d) RNA Polymerase moves to start site of transcription
5. Termination sequence
a) At end of gene
b) RNA falls off gene
III. Types of RNA
1. mRNA = Translated by ribosomes to synthesize proteins
2. rRNA = constituent of ribosome
a) rRNA made in nucleolus
-protein added here
b) Transported to cytosol
c) More proteins added to form two subunits
i. Small ribosomal subunit
ii. Large ribo. subunit
3. tRNA
a) Amino acid at 3' end
b) Anti-codon loop
i. Contains anti-codon
ii. Interaction with codon on mRNA
c) Clover leaf due to complementarity throughout tRNA
4. Post transcriptional modification
a) Precursor RNA (Pre RNA)
i. Genes w/ introns & exons (only in eukaryotes)
ii. Both transcribed butonly exons translated
iii. Intravening sequences on Pre RNA
-processed out and exons ligated by snRNPs
-What does snRNP stand for?
b) Poly A Tail at 3' end
i. Put on by an enzyme after transscription
- At polyAdenylation site
ii. No DNA template for this
iii. 100 - 250 adenine nucleotides
iv. What is its function?
c) 5' Cap (methylated guanine)
i. Put on message by enzyme as message is being transcribed
ii. No DNA template
iii. What are its two functions?
IV. Protein Sysnthesis
A. Initiation
a) mRNA + small ribo. + f-Met-tRNA
b) f-met-tRNA at P-site
- Bound at AUG
c) Addition of large ribo.
B. Elongation
a) 2nd amino acyl t-RNA binds at A-site
b) Peptidyl transferase
i. catalyzes peptide bond between f-Met and 2nd AA
ii.1st t-RNA falls off P-site
c) GTP hydrolysis
i. Ribosome moves to next codon
ii. 2nd t-RNA translocated to P-site
d) Next AA-tRNA binds at A-site
-Process begins again
e) Amino acids added from amino to carboxy terminus of protein
C. Termination
a) Ribosome reaches Stop Codon
- What are the Stop codons?
b) Release factor binds at A-site
- Polypeptide falls off ribosome
c) Ribosomal subunits dissociate
- Can be reassociated for next round of translation
D. What are Polysomes?
E. TripletCode
1. Codons consist of 3 nucleotides
2. Degenerate Code
a) 20 AA each encoded by more than one codon
b) 43 = 64 codons
3. Universal Code
- What does this mean?
4. Be able to use table in book to determine which codons encode which AA
V. Mutations
A. Macromutations = chromosomal anomalies
B. Micromutations = changes in nucleotide sequences in a gene
Point mutations:
1. Substitution of one nucleotide for another
2. Leads to:
a) Substitution of one amino acid for another ("Missense" mutation)
i. May be harmful
- Sickle cell hemoglobin
- Valine substit. for glutamic acid
- Hb causes RBC to sickle
ii. Not be harmful if amino acid is not critical to protein
b) Substitution of same amino acid
- Code is degenerate
c) Generate a stop codon in middle of mRNA
i. "Nonsense" mutation
ii. Protein synthesis stops prematurely
Chapter 18 Viral and Bacterial Genetics
I. viruses
A. Are viruses living or non-living?
1. Not cells
2. Cannot reproduce on their own
B. Structure of bacteriophage
1. Capsid
2. Nucleic acid core
3. Tail sheath
C. Bacteriophage Life Cycle
1. Lytic Cycle
a) Host-specific binding
b) Injection of nucleic acid into cell
c) Degradation of bacteial DNA
d) Immediately make new viruses
e) Lyse cell to release new viruses
-Use lysozyme
2. Lysogenic Cycle
a) Prophage integrated into host cell genome
b) Lies dormant for some time
c) Prophage replicates with host cell
b) Eventual induction
i.New virions made
ii. Cell lysis
D. Retroviruses -- Ex) HIV
1. Structure
a) Lipid bilayer with...
i.gp 120
ii. gp 41
d) Nucleocapsid
i. 2 RNA molecules
ii. 2 reverse transcriptase
ii. Viral integrase
2. EntersT-lymphocyte (most important immune cell)
a) gp 120 + CD4
b) fusion of HIV with T-cell membrane
*due to gp41
3. Replication and insertion into genome
a) Reverse Transcriptase
i. Synthesizes DNA from RNA
ii. AZT inhibits
b) RNA strand removed
c) Make double-stranded DNA
d) Insertion into host genome via integrase
-Now a provirus
4. Assembly of new HIV
5. New virions leave T-cell by budding
a) Pick up membrane from host cell
b) Eventually T-cell lyses
6. AIDS = opportunistic infections
a) Cytomegalovirus
b) Pneumonia
c) Tuberculosis
d) Kaposi's sarcoma
II. Bacterial Genetics
A. Lac Operon ( In Prokaryotes)
1. Inducible system vs. constitutive system
-What 's the difference?
2. What does "gene expression" mean?
3. Define and explain functions:
a) Promoter
b) Operator
c) RNA Polymerase
d) Lactose
e) Repressor Protein
i.Encoded by R-gene
-Not part of Lac Op
ii. Allosteric
f) Operon
g) b-galactosidase
h) b-gal permease
i) Transacetylase
4. Example of Negative control...Why?
5. What happens when:
a) Lactose is absent?
b) Lactose is present?
6. Why is the Lac operon beneficial for bacteria?
B. Lac Operon + CAP Site
1. CAP binds at CAP site
- What does CAP stand for?
2. Increases afinity of Polymerase for P site
3. CAP requires cAMP
4. Increased glucose:
a) Decreased cAMP
b) CAP leaves CAP site
c) Lac Operon stops
5. Why is this mechanism present?
6. Example of Positive control
- Why?
7. When is the Lac Op turned on:
a) Glucose + Lactose present?
b) Glucose present only?
c) Lactose present only?
d) Neither present?
Chapter 19 Control of Eukaryotic Genomes
I. Enhancer sequence far from gene
-Increases the rate of transcription
II. Transcription Factors
1. bind enhancer
2. DNA loops over and T.F. will bind to RNA Polymerase ( on the Promoter)
a) Affinity of Polym. For Promoter
b) Transcription begins
III. Cell Signals
1. Injury to tissue causes release of Growth Factor (GF)
2. GF binds receptor on healthy skin cells
3. An enzyme cascade is activated
4. Genes for TFs are activated and TFs are produced
5. TFs bind to mitosis genes
a) Genes are activated
b) Mitosis-inducing proteins made
6. Cell goes into mitosis to produce new cells
Chapter 20 DNA Technology and Genomics
I. Cloning a Gene Using Bacteria
A. Plasmids
1. Double stranded, circular DNA
2. Engineer with b-lactamase gene
- Encodes enzyme which breaks down penicillin
3. Rely on bacterial machinery for replication
-Can be many copies/cell
B. Restriction Endonucleases
1. Cut double stranded DNA
a) Very specific
b) Recognise palindromes
2. Create sticky ends
-Single stranded ends
3. What is normal function in bacteria?
4. Named after bacterial cells from which they came
-Ex) Eco R I (E. coli strain R I)
C. Gene Insertion in Plasmid
1. Cut plasmid with specific endonuclease
2. Synthesize human gene with complementary sticky ends
3. Mix gene and plasmid
4. DNA ligase forms phosphodiester bonds
5. Recombinant DNA
D. Transformation = uptake of naked DNA by cells
1. Recombinant plasmid + bacterial cells
2. CaCl2 in media makes cells leaky
3. Some cells take up plasmid
E. Selection of Cells with Plasmid
1. Plate out bacteria on penicillin
2. Colonies growing on plate have survived due to beta-lactamase
- This means plasmid present
3. Choose these cells and grow in culture
a) Bacteria and plasmids replicate many times
- Gene "cloned"
b) Bacteria makes lots of protein encoded by human gene
-Purify protein
II. Hot Topics
A. Human Genome Project
- Sequence All Human genes
1. Polymerase Chain Reaction
a) Clone piece of DNA into millions of copies
b) Only takes a few hrs.
c) Automated system
- No bacteria needed
d) Need a lot of copies to be able to visualize on gel
2. Restriction of cloned piece
a) Use restriction endonucleases
b) Cut into smaller fragments
c) Run on gel
i. Smaller frag. run fastest
ii. Larger fragments at top of gel
3. Determine how fragments are ordered in original piece of DNA
Original sequence:
4. Sequence fragments
a) Add fragment to 4 tubes
b) Labeled bases in all four tubes
c) DNA polymerase
d) Either dideoxy A, C, G, T in each tube
I. No 3'OH so can't form phosphodiester bond
ii. When this is inserted into synthesizing DNA strand, synthesis stops
e) Run contents of each tube on a gel
- Determine sequence by reading from bottom to top of gel
B. Forensics
1. Identify individuals due to DNA fragment patterns
a) Cut DNA with endonucleases and run on agarose gel
b) Restriction Fragment Length polymorphisms
2. Due to unique differences in certain DNA sequences
-Will be cut in a different way by endonucleases
3. Each person has a unique banding pattern
- "DNA Fingerprint"
Chapter 22 A Darwinian View of Life
I. Development of Evolutionary Theory
1. Charles Darwin and HMS Beagle
2. Galapogos Islands
a) Made from volcanic eruptions
b) 500 miles from So. American coast
c) How would organisms get there?
3. Adaptive Radiation
a) Finches
i. 13 new species develped
ii. Due to selective pressure of competition
b) Tortoises = different neck lengths
4. Lamarckian Evolution
a) "Acquired traits are passed to progeny"
b) Why is this not true?
5. Theory of Natural Selection
a) Overproduction
b) Variation
c) Limits on population growth
d) Survival of the fittest
II. Comparative Anatomy
A. Analogous Structures
1. Appear similar
2. Not derived from common ancestor
3. Developed similar structures to tackle similar environmental challenges
- Convergent Evolution
B. Homologous Structures
1. Appear dissimilar superficially
2. Very similar anatomically
3. Common ancestor
4. Organisms diverged to adapt to various environments
- Divergent Evolution
III. Molecular Evolution
1. Compare Amino acid sequences of same protein in different species
-Example = cytochrome c
2. Compare Nucleotide Sequences of same gene in different species
3. The closer 2 organisms are phylogenetically, the closer their AA and nucleo. Sequences
IV. Developmental Patterns
V. Biogeography
1. Study of geographic distribution of organisms
2. A species starts at center of origin and then spreads out
-Until it reaches a barrier
3. Many organisms are found only on one continent
- Example: Australia
4. Continental Drift
a) Continents connected 240 million years ago = Pangaea
b) Began to drift apart 180 million yrs ago
- Due to separation of tectonic plates
c) Organsimns on separated continents evolved in different directions
Chapter 23 The Evolution of Populations
A. Terms
1. Population
2. Gene Pool
3. Gene frequency
B. Hardy Weinberg Principle
1. Estimate allele frequencies in a population
a) Tend to stay constant (equilibrium)
b) Changing freq. indicate evolution
2. HW equation
a) p2 + 2pq + q2 =1
b) p + q = 1
c) p = Dominant allele
q = Recessive allele
d) Solve for: q2, q , p, p2, 2pq
C. Factors Changing Equilibrium
1. Non-random mating
2. Genetic Drift
a) Bottle neck effect
b) Most significant with small population
3. Migration into and out of a population
- Greater impact on smaller populations
4. Mutation
a) Most non-lethal mutations are recessive
-Expressed only due to selective pressure
b) Most tend to be maladaptive
c) Only way to get new genes in a population
5. Natural Selection (Graphs)
a) Stabilizing Selection
Ex) Sickle cell anemia
- SS = normal RBCs/die of malaria
- Ss = normal RBCs/don't get malaria
- ss = Sickle cell/don't get malaria
b) Directional Selection
- Ex) Industrial melanism
i. Peppered moths increased in number during Industrial Age
ii. Better camouflaged than light moths on sooty trees
iii. Birds picked off light moths faster
iv. Selective pressure due to environmental change
c) Disruptive Selection
i. Less represented phenotypes favored due to selective pressure
ii. Finch beaks
Chapter 24 The Origin of Species
A. Define:
1. Macroevolution
-What is a species?
2. Microevolution
B. Reproductive Isolation (give examples)
1. Mechanical = Differences in reproductive structures
2. Temporal = Sexually active at different times of year
3. Gamete Isolation
a) Gametes incompatible so no fertilization
or
b) Sperm doesn't survive in female reprod. tract
4. Hybrid Inviability = Progeny die before birth
5. Behavioral Isolation
6. Hybrid sterility
a) Progeny can't reproduce
b) Mule has 63 chromosomes
C. Allopatric Speciation
1. geographic barriers lead to speciation
2. Example = pupfish or hurricane
Chapter 25 Phylogeny and Systematics
I. Fossil Record
A. Petrifaction
1. Sediment hardens around dead organism
- Favors organisms living in aqueous environments
2. Hard parts of organism replaced by minerals
B. Paleontology:
a) Compression
b) Cast
c) Coprilite
d) Amber
e) Footprint
f) Permineralization
C. Dating
1. Relative Dating
a) Index fossils
b) Oldest of earth layers (strata) are the deepest
c) Correlate index fossils with other fossils in this layer
d) Get a relative idea of age
2. Absolute Dating
a) What is radioactive decay?
b) What is a half-life?
c) 40K ----> 40Ar
i. Look at proportion of parent isotope to product
ii. If know half-life, can calculate approximate age
iii. Argon gas diffuses away unless trapped in fossilized material
d) Carbon Dating
i. Why is this only used for items 50,000 years or less?
ii. Plants incorporate C by CO2 fixation
- 1 part 14C:1 trillion parts 12C
iii. How do animals incorporate 14C?
iv. Meaure ratio of 14C to 12C
- 14C no longer incorporated at death of organism
- 14C decays and 12C does not
Chapter 26 Origin of Life
I. Early Earth
A. Atmospheric Gases
1. Released by volcanoes & hot springs
2. What were these gases?
B. Requirements for Chemical Evolution
1. No free O2
2. Energy
3. Chemical building blocks
a) Water
b) Dissolved inorganics
c) Atmospheric gases
4. Time
C. Simulation of early Earth
1. Make organic molecules
* Miller and Urey
2. Make organic polymers
a) On clay or thermal vents
b) Heat dry mixture of amino acids to get Proteinoids
3. Protobionts
a) Spontaneously assembling organic polymers
b) What similarities to cells?
c) Microsphere = water + proteinoids
-What are their cellular characteristics?
d) Liposomes = Lipid bilayer in water
II. Evolution of Cells
A. Prokaryotes 1st
1. Stromalites = oldest fossils
2. Heterotrophs 1st ?
*Glycolysis and fermentation for energy
3. Anaerobes
Not responsible for:
B. Nucleic Acid Evolution
1. RNA 1st informational molecule
a) Catalytic activity
b) Ribozymes
c) May have catalyzed the synthesis of 1st proteins and DNA
2. DNA
a) Advantageous
b) More stable than RNA
c) Became primary storage site for genetic information
B. Autotrophs = Mutants of 1st cells
1. Advantageous in competitive world
2. Cyanobacteria?
3. Oxygen released
4. Formation of ozone
*Allowed terrestrial life
5. Formation of O2 atmosphere
a) Obligate anaerobes die
b) Facultative anaerobes survive
*Some develop way to use O2 to make ATP (become aerobes)
C. Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
1. Large anaerobe ingests small aerobe
*Becomes mitochondria
2. Lg. anaerobe ingests photosynthetic bacterium
*Becomes chloroplast
3. Evidence:
a) Mito. and Chloro. have ribosomes similar to bacteria
b) Mito. and Chloro. have chromosomes similar to bacteria
c) Double membranes
II. Taxonomy
A. Domains
1. Bacteria
a) Stained via Gram stain.
b) Most bacteria in this category
c) Cyanobacteria
i.Blue-green algae
ii. Photosynthetic
iii. Nitrogen fixers
2. Archaea
a) No peptidoglycan in cell wall
b) Methanogens
c) Halophiles
d) Thermoacidophiles
3. Eukarya
-Eukaryotic cells
B. Know major taxonomic groups below Kingdom
1. Phylum 4. Family
2. Class 5. Genus
3. Order 6. Species
B. Kingdoms (know general characteristics)
1. Monera 3. Fungi
2. Protista 4. Plantae
5. Animalia
C. Binomial nomenclature
III. Punctuated Equilibrium vs. Phyletic Gradualism
Chapter 27 Prokaryotes
A. General characteristics
1. Three Bacterial shapes
a) Cocci
b) Bacilli
c) Spirilla
2. Reproduction
-Binary fission (Asexual)
3. Circular chromosomes
4. Cell wall
5. Respiration
a) Aerobe
b) Facultative Anaerobe
c) Obligate Anaerobe
6. Energy requirements
a) Mostly heterotrophs
-Many are saprobes
b) Some autotrophs
i. Chemoautotrophs
- Oxidation of H2S or NH3
ii. Photoautotrophs
- Cyanobacteria for example
B. Gram stain
1. Gram positive
a) Thick peptidoglycan in cell wall
b) Look purple
i.Crystal violet and iodine adhere
ii. Not decolorized by alcohol
2. Gram negative
a) Cell wall with phospholipid layer
b) Dissolved by 95% alcohol
c) Appear red
-Stained by safranin (counterstain)
D. Normal Flora
1. Mutualistic relationship with humans
a) On skin
b) In gut
2. Nonpathogenic for the most part
E. Pathogenic Bacteria
1. Disease-causing
2. Some are opportunistic
-Not pathogenic unless environment changes
3. Exo toxins
a) Secreted by cell
b) Botulism due to Clostridium (anaerobe)
i. Source of Clostrid.?
ii. Physical symptoms?
iii. How do you inactivate?
4. Antibiotic resistance
Chapter 28 Kingdom Protista
A. General Characteristics
1. Eukaryotes
2. Mostly unicellular
B. Protozoans (Animal-like)
1. Know general characteristics
a) Single cell
b) Heterotrophs
2. Ciliates Ex) Paramecium
a) Free-living
b) Mostly fresh water
-Need contractile vacuoles (Why?)
c) Asexual reproduction by fission
d) Sexual reprod. by conjugation
i.Micronuclei divid in two
ii. Mutual exchange of micronuclei
iii. Two indiv. now genetically identical
e) Movement by cilia
f) Ingest food
i.Cilia push food into oral groove
ii. Food vacuole forms
iii. Fusion with lysosome
-Food degraded and absorbed by cell
g) Macronucleus controls all functions in cell except reproduction
3. Phylum Rizopoda
a) All use pseudopodia
b) Amoeba
i. What does this word mean?
ii. Engulf food via pseudopodia
iii. Food vacuole fused with lysosome
iv. Digestion & absorption of food
c) Mostly aquatic
c) Entamoeba histolytica
i.Amoebic dysentery
ii. How obtained?
iii. Interferes with reabsorption of water by lg. intestine
-Make mucho sick!
4. Plasmodium vivax
a) Parasite causing malaria
-Most common infectious disease in world
b) Mosquito = vector
i.Picks up P. vivax from infected human
ii. Lives in salivary glands of mosquito
iii. Mosquito infects other humans by biting
iv. Cut down on P. vivax by spraying for mosquitos
c) P. vivax lives and reproduces in red blood cells
i.Lyse cells and toxins released
ii. Chills and fever
iii. Potentially lethal
C. Plant-like Protists
1. Photosyntheticdue to chlorophyl
2. Dinoflagellates
a) What does "dinos" mean?
b) Interlocking shells
c) Two flagella in grooves
-undulation causes whirling
d) Red tide
i.Blooms due to increased reproduction
-Water orange-red due to carotenoids
ii. Kill fish due to paralytic toxin
iii. May make humans sick
- Eat contaminated shell fish
- Respiratory distress
- Name of illness?
3. Algae
a) Primarily marine
b) single cell to mutlicellular (Seaweed)
c) Brown Algae
i.Kelp (food and habitat)
ii. Very sturdy
- Live in intertidal zones
- Air-filled sac for buoyancy
- - Root-like holdfasts
iii. Phucoxanthin = pigment
-also chlorophyll
iv. Produce algin in cell walls
-What used for?
Chapter 29 Plant diversity I
I. Characteristics of Terrestrial Plants
A. Advantages over aquatic algaes
1. More CO2
2. More sunlight
B. Disadvantage = Lose water to environment
C. Adaptions to Land
1. Embryo in female reprod. tract
2. Cutin to maintain H2O
3. Vascular Tissue allows height
D. Alternation of Generations
1. Gametophyte (1N)
a) Production of egg
b) 2N zygote grows out of female
c) becomes sporophyte
2. Sporophyte (2N)
a) Production of spores
b) Meiosis of spores to 1N
c) Germination of spores to gametophyte
II. Non-Vascular/Seedless Plants
A. Characteristics
1. Small
-Why?
2. Need H2O for fertiliz.
3. Dominant gametophyte
a) Archegonia
b) Antheridia
B. Mosses (Division Bryophyta)
1. Dioecious
2. Sporophyte
i. Capsule with spores
ii. Breaks open to release spores (Asexual)
3. Gametophyte = leafy
4. Economic importance
a) Food source
b) Prevents erosion
c) Soil conditioner
d) Sphagnum = peat moss
-burned as fuel
5. Evolution = "Green Plant Lineage"
a) All have cellulose in cell wall, chlorophyll a and b and starch storage
b) Earliest know are the green algae
c) What other organisms belong here?
III. Lower Vascular Plants
A. Characteristics
1. Dominant Sporophyte
2. Xylem and Phloem present
*Can grow taller
3. Require H2O for fertiliz.
B. Division Pterophyta (ferns)
1. Gametophyte = Prothallus
a) Heart-shaped
b) Contains antheridia and archegonia
2. Sporophyte:
a) Zygote-->Fiddlehead ->Frond
b) Sori contain Sporangia with spores
3. Monoecious
4. Deciduous leaves
5. Coal formation
a) Carboniferous period
b) Warm, humid climate
c) Ferns & gymnosperms grew in swamps
d) Incomplete decomposition
e) Pressure from sedimentary rock
Chapter 30 Plant Diversity II
A. Characteristics
1. Seed formation
a) Seed coat
b) Embryo
c) Endosperm
2. Dominant sporophyte
C. Gymnosperms "Naked seed"
1. Division Ginkophyta
a) All extinct except Ginkgo
b) Deciduous
c) Dioecious
d) Oldest existing genus of trees
2. Div. Coniferophyta
a) Mostly evergreens
b) Gametophyte in cones
i. Ovulate cone = ovum
ii. Staminate cone = pollen
c) Be able to distinguish pollination from fertilization
d) Monoecious
e) Oldest living trees
f) Tallest trees
D. Angiosperms "Flowering seed"
1. Division Anthophyta
2. Advantages over gymnosperms
a) Flower attracts insects for pollination
b) Fruit protects seed
-Aids in dissemination
3. Flower Parts:
a)Petals
b) Stamen with anthers
-Make Pollen
c) Pistil w/ Ovary makes Ova
- Ovary wall becomes fruit
4. Be able to explain how pollination leads to fertilization
5.Zygote develops in ovary of flower
6. How are seeds disseminated?
E. Angiosperm Classes
A. Class Monocotyledones
- Know characteristics
8. Class Dicotyledones
- Know characteristics
F. Evolution of Seed Plants
1. Progymnosperms
a) Descended from seedless, vascular plants
b) Woody tissue
c) Spores
d) Gave rise to seed ferns -----> Ginkgos
e) Gave rise to conifers
2. Gymnosperms ----> Angiosperms
a) ~180 million years ago fossilized signs of flowering plants
-What were they?
b) Flowering plants dominant by 90 million years ago
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