Lecture Syllabus

Principles of Biology II

Biology 112

Date Chapter Topic

W Jan 14 31 Fungi

Th Jan. 15 31 Fungi

F Jan 16 33 Invertebrates (Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes)

W Jan. 21 33 Invertebrates (Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida)

Th Jan.22 Film

F Jan. 23 33, 34 Invertebrates (Arthropoda, Echinoderms, Invertebrate Chordates

W Jan. 28 34 Vertebrates (Birds, Mammals)

Th Jan. 29 Animal Research Article Discussion

F Jan. 30 35 Plant Structure and Growth

W Feb. 4 37 Plant Nutrition

Th Feb. 5 Exam I

F Feb. 6 38 Plant Reproduction

W Feb. 11 40 Animal Structure and Function

Th Feb. 12 Film: Plant Nutrition

F Feb. 13 40 Animal Structure and Function ______

W Feb. 18 41 Animal Nutrition

Th Feb. 19 To Be Announced

F Feb. 20 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange (Respiration)

W Feb. 25 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange (Heart)

Th Feb. 26 Exam II

F Feb. 27 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange (Blood Vessels and Physiology)

W March 3 43 The Body's Defenses

Th March 4 Brent Manseau, RN, Organ Recovery Services, Mid-South Transplant Foundation

F March 5 43 The Body's Defenses

W Mar. 17 44 Regulating the Internal Environment (Excretory System)

Th Mar. 18 Forensic Anthropologist, Regional Forensics Center

F Mar. 19 45 Chemical Signals in Animals (Endocrine System)

W Mar. 24 46 Animal Reproduction

Th Mar. 25 Exam III

F Mar. 26 46 Animal Reproduction

W Mar. 31 47 Animal Development

Th. April 1 Journal Article Discussion, Human cloning, In vitro fertilization

F April 2 48 Nervous Systems (Neurons)

W April 7 48 Nervous Systems (Nerve Impulse Conduction, Brain)

Inform.Interview Due

Th April 8, F April 9 EASTER BREAK

W April 14 49 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms (The Senses, Vision)

Th April 15 Dr. Katie Sauser, Cervical Mucus and Fertility

F April 16 49 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms (Hearing, Balance)

W April 21 49 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms (Muscle Physiology)

Th April 22 EXAM IV

F April 23 49 Sensory and Motor Mechanisms (Skeleton)

W April 28 52 Population Ecology

Th April 29 Catch-up Discussion (or discussion on Global Warming)

F April 30 53 Coomunity Ecology

May 5-11 Final Exams

Personally interview a person whose career is one in which you are interested. This does not have to be a health-related field. Some rules:

1. Must be someone other than a relative.

2. A phone interview is not sufficient.

A handout with sample informational interview questions can be obtained from the Career Center in Barry Hall. If the handout is helpful, use some of those questions from the informational interview handout but also add questions of your own. Prior to the interview you should decide what questions you will ask.

3. Your interview should be 3-4 pages in length, typewritten, double-spaced.

4. An interview format should be used as follows:

Q: What starting salary might I expect if I chose this career?

A: Depends on the area of the country in which you live. In this part of

the country salaries for recent graduates should start at around $20,000 per year.

5. Include an opening paragraph which briefly describes your career interests and why you developed this interest.

6. The 2nd paragraph should introduce the interviewee and describe the work setting.

7. Include a closing paragraph summing up your impressions. Have you changed your mind about a career after talking to that person?

If you need help finding someone to interview please let me know ASAP.

The Career Center may also be able to assist you through the Alumni Advising Network (a listing of CBU graduates in different fields who have agreed to talk to interested CBU students about their career).

Interview due: April 7

Lecture Outline

Chapter 26 SeedlessPlants

I. Characteristics of Terrestrial Plants

A. Advantages over aquatic algaes

1. More CO2

2. More sunlight

B. Disadvantage = Lose water to environment

C. Adaptions to Land

1. Embryo in female reprod. tract

2. Cutin to maintain H2O

3. Vascular Tissue allows height

D. Alternation of Generations

1. Gametophyte (1N)

a) Production of egg

b) 2N zygote grows out of female

c) becomes sporophyte

2. Sporophyte (2N)

a) Production of spores

b) Meiosis of spores to 1N

c) Germination of spores to gametophyte

II. Non-Vascular/Seedless Plants

A. Characteristics

1. Small

-Why?

2. Need H2O for fertiliz.

3. Dominant gametophyte

a) Archegonia

b) Antheridia

B. Mosses (Division Bryophyta)

1. Dioecious

2. Sporophyte

i. Capsule with spores

ii. Breaks open to release spores (Asexual)

3. Gametophyte = leafy

4. Economic importance

a) Food source

b) Prevents erosion

c) Soil conditioner

d) Sphagnum = peat moss

-burned as fuel

5. Evolution

a) Algae gave rise to mosses

-Evolutionary dead end

b) Algae gave rise to vascular plants

II. Lower Vascular Plants

A. Characteristics

1. Dominant Sporophyte

2. Xylem and Phloem present

*Can grow taller

3. Require H2O for fertiliz.

B. Division Pterophyta (ferns)

1. Gametophyte = Prothallus

a) Heart-shaped

b) Contains antheridia and archegonia

2. Sporophyte:

a) Zygote-->Fiddlehead ->Frond

b) Sori contain Sporangia with spores

3. Monoecious

4. Deciduous leaves

5. Coal formation

a) Carboniferous period

b) Warm, humid climate

c) Ferns & gymnosperms grew in swamps

d) Incomplete decomposition

e) Pressure from sedimentary rock

Chapter 27 Seed Plants

A. Characteristics

1. Seed formation

a) Seed coat

b) Embryo

c) Endosperm

2. Dominant sporophyte

C. Gymnosperms "Naked seed"

1. Division Ginkophyta

a) All extinct except Ginkgo

b) Deciduous

c) Dioecious

d) Oldest existing genus of trees

2. Div. Coniferophyta

a) Mostly evergreens

b) Gametophyte in cones

i. Ovulate cone = ovum

ii. Staminate cone = pollen

c) Be able to distinguish pollination from fertilization

d) Monoecious

e) Oldest living trees

f) Tallest trees

D. Angiosperms "Flowering seed"

1. Division Anthophyta

2. Advantages over gymnosperms

a) Flower attracts insects for pollination

b) Fruit protects seed

-Aids in dissemination

3. Flower Parts:

a)Petals

b) Stamen with anthers

-Make Pollen

c) Pistil w/ Ovary makes Ova

- Ovary wall becomes fruit

4. Be able to explain how pollination leads to fertilization

5. Zygote develops in ovary of flower

6. How are seeds disseminated?

7. Class Monocotyledones

- Know characteristics

8. Class Dicotyledones

- Know characteristics

E. Evolution of Seed Plants

1. Progymnosperms

a) Descended from seedless, vascular plants

b) Woody tissue

c) Spores

d) Gave rise to seed ferns -----> Ginkgos

e) Gave rise to conifers

2. Gymnosperms ----> Angiosperms

a) ~180 million years ago signs of flowering plants

-What were they?

b) Flowering plants dominant by 90 million years ago

Chapter 31

Plant Structure, Growth and Differentiation

I Growth in Plant

A. Types of growth

1. Increase in cell #

2. Increase in cell size

3. Differentiation

B. Meristematic Tissue

1. Primary Growth

a) Root and stem tips

b) Apical Meristem

2. Secondary Growth

a) Vascular Cambium

b) Annual rings (2o xylem)

-laid down inward

c) 2o Phloem laid down outward (bark)

II. Plant Tissues

A. Dermal Tissue

1. Epidermal cells

a) Living parenchyma

b) two cell walls

c) Waxy cuticle protects from water loss

d) Protection

e) Herbaceous plants

2.Cork cells

a) Dead at maturity

b) Replaces epidermal tissue

c) Produced in large amounts

B. Vascular Tissue

1. Xylem

a) Vessels

b) Vessel elements

i. Dead at maturity

ii. Holes at end walls

iii. Pits for lateral transfer of water

c) Transport of water and minerals

2. Phloem

a) Conduction of sugar

b) Sieve Tube Members

i. Sieve plates at end walls

ii. No nuclei or organelles but living cells

c) Companion Cells

i. Transport of sugar from mesophyll to sieve tube members

ii. Plasmodesmata

C. Ground Tissue= Parenchyma

1. Thin cell walls

2. Storage

3. Secretion

4. Photosynthesis

Chapter 32

Leaf Structure and Function

I. Autumn

A. Fall Colors

1. Chlorophyll broken down

2. Appearance of auxiliary pigmants

a) Xanthophylls

b) Carotenoids

B. Leaf Loss

1. Abscission Zone between petiole and blade

2. Cork cells laid down

3. Middle lamellae digested

C. Why is Leaf loss necessary in winter?

II. Water Loss

A. Stomata (CO2 in and H2O out)

1. Epidermis

2. Guard Cells control

3. Open due to Light

4. Close due to lack of light

5. Potassium ion Mechanism (Open)

a) Light triggers release of plant hormones

b) H+ transported out of guard cells

- Active transport

c) K+ enters gurad cells

d) Water follows by osmosis

e) Stomata open

6. Potassium Ion Mechanism (Close)

a) Decrease in light triggers release of Abscisic acid

b) K+ pumped out of guard cell

c) H+ moves back in

d) Water follows K+

B Transpiration

1. Water loss through evaporation

2. Mesophyll covered with water film

3. Increases transpiration:

a) High temp.

b) High wind

c) Increase in photoperiod

4. Benefits

a) Cooling

b) More minerals supplied throughout plant

5. Temporary Wilt

a) Plants may lose turgor due to transpiration

b) Regain turgor at night when stomata closed

c) Benefit to wilt = decreases surface area for transpiration

C. Guttation

1. Too much liquid in plant at night

2. Lost through special pores at leaf margins

Chapter 33

Stems and Plant Transport

I. Stem Function

1. Support of leaves and reprod. structures

2. Internal transport

3. Productionof new, living tissues

II. Secondary Growh

1. Secondary xylem produced inward to vascular cambium

a) Annual rings

b) Due to changes in spring and summer

2. Secondary phloem produced outward to vascular cambium

III. Water and Mineral Transport thru Xylem

A. H2O Potential

1. Pure H2O = 0 Bars

2. H2O with solute has neg. H2O Potential

3. Moist soil has a higher H2O Potential than root

4. Movement of water to from area of higher to lower water potential

B. Root Pressure Mechanism (Push)

1. Water moves into root

2. Pressure forces water upward

C. Tension-Cohesion Mechanism (Pull)

1. Evaporative pull of transpiration

2. Cohesiveness due to H-bonds in water

3. Water is also adhesive

4. Solid column of water

II. Pressure Flow Hypothesis (Phloem)

1. Sucrose made in mesophyll cell

2. Active Transport

a ) H+ pumped out of companion cell

b) H+ comes back in with sucrose

3. Transport of sucrose into phloem sieve tube member

a) Passive process due to plasmodesmata

b) Water follows by osmosis

c) Increased pressure at source

3. Transport of sucrose out of phloem at sink

a) Can be active or facilitated

b) H2O moves back into xylem as sucrose leaves

Chapter 34 Roots

A. Layers of root:

1. Epidermis

2. Cortex water moves through:

a) apoplast mostly

b) symplast

3. Stele

a) Endodermis

i. Casperian strip with suberin

ii. Regulates water

passage into plant ...........How?

b) Pericycle = growth of 2o roots

c) Xylem and phloem

B. Types of Roots

1. Taproot

2. Fibrous roots

-Adventitious

3. Root hairs = Emerge from epidermis

-Single cell thick

C. Root Functions

1. Anchorage

2. Water for plant

C. Nitrogen Utilization

1. Why is N necessary for plant?

2. Nitrogen fixation

a) Bacteria (Rhizobium)

b) N2 ---> NH3 via nitrogenase

c) Root nodules play what role?

3. Nitrification

a) NH3 ----> NO2 - ------>NO3 -

b) Bacteria do this

4. Assimilation

a) Active transport of N cmpds by root

b) How do animals get N cmpds?

Chapter 36

Plant Development and Growth

I. Seed Germination

A. Environmental requirements?

B. Abscissic Acid

1. inhibits in germination desert plants

2. How is it removed?

C. Radicle

1. Embryonic root

2. Emerges 1st with root cap

D. Plumule

1. Embryonic shoot

2. Stem pulls cotyledons along

3. Cotyledons act as 1st food for seedling

- How if no photosynthesis?

Chapter 28

I. Animal Kingdom Characteristics

A. Multicellular

B. Heterotrophic

C. Hollow Body (most)

D. Motile (most)

II. Terms to Know:

1. Germ layers

a) Ectoderm} Know what

b) Mesoderm } these

c) Endoderm ) become

2. Digestive Tract

a) Complete

b) Incomplete

3. Symmetry (Give examples)

a) Asymmetry

b) Radial Symm.

c) Bilateral Symm.

4. Surfaces of Body

a) Anterior

b) Posterior

c) Ventral

d) Dorsal

IV. Phyum Porifera

1. Sessile adults/ Motile larvae

2. Physiology

a) Gas exchange via individual cells

b) Excretion via individual cells

3. Structural aspects:

a) Diploblastic

i. Epidermis

ii. Collar cells

b) Amoebocytes

c) Collar cells

d) Spongocoel

e) Incurrent pores

d) Osculum

4. Hermaphroditic

5. Sexual reproduction

-How?

6. Asymmetry

7. Exoskeleton

a) Spicules of CaCO3 or silicon

b) Spongin

8. Asexual reprod. by budding

IV. Phylum Cnidaria

1. Diploblastic

a) Epidermis

b) Endodermis

2. Incomplete digestive tract

3. Two adult stages

a) Medusa

i. Free-swimming

ii. Sexual reprod. (2 sexes)

iii. Radial symm.

b) Polyp

i. Sessile

ii. Asexual by budding

iii. Hermaphroditic

iv. Radial symmetry

v. Hydra = only exists in polyp form

5. Obelia

a) Feeding & Reprod. Polyps

b) Know life cycle

6. Tentacles (Predacious carnivores)

a) Cnidocytes

b) nematocysts

7. Coral

a) Mutualistic relationship with algae

i.Algae provides oxygen, carbon for coral

ii. Coral provides nitrogenous wastes

b) CaCO3 = coral reef

c) Colony of polyps -¦ will sting

8. Portuguese Man-o-war

*Free-swimming polyps and medusae

V. Body Cavities

1. Acoelomate

2. Pseudocoelomate

3. Coelomate

VI. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flat worms)

1. Bilateral symmetry

2. Triploblastic

3. Incomplete digestive tract

4. Acoelomates

5. Planaria

a)Eversible pharynx

b) Free-living

c) Hermaphroditic

d) Cephalization

i. Eyespots

ii. Auricles

iii. Brain = paired neurons

e) Asexual reproduction by fission

6. Tapeworm (intestinal parasite)

a) Scolex with hooks and suckers

b) Proglottids

i. Newest if close to scolex

ii. Almost entirely reproductive structures

c) Know Life cycle of beef tapeworm

i. Intermediate host?

ii. Final host?

d) Danger to host?

e) How does dog get tapeworm?

7. Human Liver Fluke

a) Primary host = humans

b) Intermediate hosts = snail, fish

c) Know life cycle

d) Danger = blockage of bile duct

VII. Adaptations of Endoparasites

a) Vast reproductive potential

b) Tough cuticle survives stomach acid

c) Do not promote a strong immune response

VII. Phylum Nematoda (Round worms)

1. Pseudocoelomates

-Fluid-filled coelom acts as skeleton for movement

2. Complete digestive tract

3. Bilateral symmetry

4. Separate sexes

5. Ecological importance?

6. Free-living and parasitic

7. Pinworms = intestinal parasite

8. Filaria worms = elephantiasis

Chapter 29

I. Gen. Charact. of Coelomate Protostomes

1. Most have pumping heart

2. Independent contraction of gut

-due to muscles assoc. with gut

3. Protostomes and Deuterostomes

*What's the difference?

II. Phylum Mollusca

1. Coelomate, Protostome

2. Bilateral Symmetry

3. Open circulatory system

a) Aorta

b) Hemocoel

c) Blood oxygenated by gills

A. ClassBivalva

1. Examples?

2.Sedentary

3.Separate sexes

4. Structures:

i. Muscular foot

ii. Mantle

iii. Visceral mass

iv. Incurrent and excurrent siphon

v. Ciliated gills

B. Class Cephalopoda

1. Squid , octopus

2. Predators

3. Fairly well developed brain

-Most intelligent invertebrates

4. Largest invertebrates

5. Relationship with Annelids

a) Neopilina

b) Larval stages similar

c) Segmentation

III. Phylum Annelida

1. Segmented roundworms

2. Coelomate, Protostome

3. Closed Circulatory System

4. Movement

a) Fluid-filled coelom

-hydrostatic skeleton

b) Longitudinal and circular muscles

-for movement

5. Class Oligochaeta

a)Earthworm

b) Why is moist skin necessary?

c) Earthworm reproduction

i. Hermaphroditic

ii. Reciprocal sperm exchange

iii. Clitellum secretes cocoon

iv. Development of worms in cocoon

d) Recycling of organic materials in soil

-Also aeration

e) Segmentation

i. Paired nephridia

ii. Paired ganglia

iii. Setae

6. Class Hirudiniae

a) Leeches (Ectoparasite)

b) Anesthetic

c) Anticoagulent = Hirudin

7. Relationship with Arthropods

a) Both segmented

b) Trilobites (segmented arthropods)

IV. Phylum Arthropoda ("Jointed feet")

A. General characteristics

1. Largest Phylum

2. Actually Jointed appendages

3. Exoskeleton

a) Chitin

b) Molting

I. Why does it happen?

ii. How does it happen?

4. Segmentation

5. Cephalization

a) Specialized organs on head

b) Brain

6. Open Circulatory System

a) Pumping heart

b) Hemocoel with hemolymph

7. Metamorphosis

a) Complete

b) Incomplete

8. Coelomate, Protostomes

B. Subphylum Chelicerae

1. Fang-like or pincer-like mouth parts

2. Class Arachnida (predators)

a) Members?

b) 4 prs of walking legs

C. Subphylum Crustacea

1. Members?

2. 5 pr. of wqlking legs

3. Aquatic

D. Subphylum Uniramia (Insects)

1. Body Segmentation

a) Head

b) Thorax

iI. Prothorax

ii. Mesathorax

iii. Metathorax

c) Abdomen

2. Spiracles & Tracheal Tubes

3. Compound eyes

4. Largest animal group

5. Metamorphosis

a) Complete

b) Incomplete

6. Reasons for insect success

a) Specialization

b) Ability to fly

c) Exoskeleton

d) Metamorphosis

Chapter 30 Deuterostomes

I. Phylum Echinodermata

1. Closest relative to Chordates

*Why?

2. Bottom dwellers

3. Radial Symm. (Adults)

4. Calcareous Endoskeleton

5. Coelomate, Deuterostome

6. Class Asteroidea

a) Feeding via everted stomach

b) Reproduction

i.Capable of Regeneration

ii. Separate sexes

c) No brain

d) Poor circulatory system

e) Movement via tube feet

i. Ampulla squeezes

ii. Tube foot fills with water

-Extends

7. Other members?

II. Phylum Chordata

A. Three 1o characteristics

1. Notochord which is later replaced by what?

2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord becomes what?

3. Pharyngeal gill slits

B. Subphylum Urochordata

1. Tunicates (sea squirt)

-Adults develop a protective tunic

2. 3 Chordate characteristics in larva

3. Filter feeders, barrel-shaped

4. Non-vertebrate

C. Subphylum Cephalochordata

a) Lancelets

b) Fish-like

c) Filter feeders (no jaws)

d) Adults with all 3 Chordate characteristics

e) Non-vertebrate chordate

D.Subphylum Vertebrata

1. Contributions to success:

a) Vertebral colums

b) Endoskeleton

c) Two paired appendages

d) Pronounced cephalization

2. Know evolutionary flow scheme

3. Class Agnatha

a) Cyclostomes (jawless fish)

b) Parasites of fish

-only vertebrate parasite

c) Lamprey eel

d) Ectotherms

4. Class Chondrichthyes

a) Cartilagenous fish

b) Members?

c) Reproduction

i. Viviparous

ii. Oviparous

iii. Ovoviviparous

d) Ectotherms

5. Class Osteichthyes

a) Bony fishes

b) Two ancient groups

i. Ray-finned fishes

- Ancestors of modern fish

-Lungs became swim bladder

ii. Lobe-finned fishes

- Ancestors of amphib.

- Coelocanth

-Lungs and bony appendages

c) Mostly oviparous

d) Two-chambered heart

Atrium--->Ventricle--->Conus--->Aorta---> Gills--->Body--->Atrium

e) Ectotherms

6. Class Amphibia

a) Land dwellers

i. feet with toes

ii. Pelvic and pectoral girdle

b) Require water for:

i. reproduction

ii. respiration via skin - Cutaneous gas exchange

iii. Development

c) Members?

d) Oviparous = jelly-coated eggs

e) Three-chambered heart

ii. 2 Atria

ii. 1 ventricle

f) Ectotherms

7. Class Reptilia

a) Members?

b) Fully terrestrial due to:

i. Internal fertilization

ii. Cleidoic Egg with embryonic membranes

-Allantois for gas exchange and waste storage

-Amnion provides and aqueous environ. for embryo

iii. Keratin in scales

d) 31/2 chambered heart

e) Age of Reptiles for ~290 million years

f) Divergence of reptiles into 3 groups

i. Birds and modern reptiles

ii. Turtles

iii.Mammals

g) Archeopteryx

i. What were bird-like characteristics?

ii. What were reptile-like characteristics?

Read: Scientific American Article

8. Class Aves

a) Only modern animal with feathers

b) Adaptations for flight

i. Hollow bones

ii. Feathers and wings

iii. Only one functioning ovary

iv.Testes small until breeding season.

c) Internal Fertilization

d) Cleidoic Egg

e) Endootherms

f) Four chambered heart

Body--->Right atrium--->Rt. ventricle---> Lungs--->Left atrium--->Left ventricle---> Body

9. Class Mammalia

a) 3 main characteristics of mammals

i. Hair

ii. Mammary glands

iii. Endotherms

b) Other characteristics:

i. Mostly viviparous

ii. Fewer offspring

iii. Extensive brain development

b) Subphylum Protheria

i. Monotremes

ii. Oviparous

iii. Members?

c) Subphylum Metatheria

i.Marsupials

ii.Pouched animals

iii. Viviparous

-Young not born fully developed

iii. Members?

d) Subphylum Eutheria

i. Placental Mammals

ii.Viviparous

iii. Members?

Chapter 37 Animal Tissues

I. Animal tissues

A. Epithelial

1. Simple Columnar

a) Function?

b) Location?

2. Stratified Squamous

a) Function?

b) Location?

3. Glands

a) Example of one-cell gland?

b) Examples of multicell gland?

B. Endothelial Tissue

1. Lines blood vessels

2. Lines lymph vessels

C. Connective Tissue

1. Fibrous matrix secreted by cells

-Collagen fibers mostly

2. Fibroblasts secrete matrix

3. Function

a) Connects two different types of tissue

b) Support and protection

3. Loose Connective

a) Fibroblasts

b) Example = Subcutaneous layer

4. Dense Connective

a) Parallel fibers

b) Example = Tendon

5. Adipose

a) Cells enlarge as lipid droplets fill cytoplasm

b) Where found in body?

c) What is cellulite?

6. Cartilage

a) Chondcrocytes in Lacunae

b) No blood vessels

c) Where is cartilage in body?

7. Bone

a) Osteocytes in lacunae

*Connected by cytoplasmic processes

c) Haversian Canals

d) Lamellae

e) Matrix of Calcium salts

f) Osteoblasts = Deposit bone

g) Osteoclasts = Break dow n bone

8. Blood and lymph

D. Muscle Tissue

1. Smooth

a) Involuntary

b) Not striated

c) Uninucleate

d) Slowest speed of contraction

e) Longest sustained contraction

2. Cardiac

a) One or two nuclei/cell

b) Striated

c) Involuntary

d) Intermediate speed of contraction

e) Intermediate ability to sustain

3. Skeletal

a) Voluntary

b) Multinucleate

c) Striated

d) Most rapid contraction response

e) Least ability to sustain

D. Nervous Tissue

1. Neurons = 10%

2. Glial cells = 90%

a) Microglial

b) Schwann cells

Chapter 38

Protection, Support, Movement

I. Skin

A. Define "Organ"

B. Epidermis

1. Stratified Squamous Epith.

2. Cells

a) Stratum Corneum = dead

b) Stratum Basale = alive

c) Melanocytes

4. No blood supply

C. Dermis

1. Dense Connective tissue

2. Blood vessels

3. Sweat and sebaceous glands

4. Sense organs

II. Subcutaneous Tissue

1. Adipose

2. Connective tissue

III. Skeletal System

A. Muscles pull on bones via tendons

- Never push

B. Functions

1. Hematopoiesis

2. Support of soft tissues

3. Movement

4. Calcium reservoir

C. Components

1. Cartilage

2. Bone

a) Spongy (trabeculae)

b) Compact (Haversian system)

3. Bone Marrow

*Hematopoiesis

D. Anatomy of Long bone

1. Diaphysis

3. Metaphysis

2. Epiphysis

4. Medullary cavity

5. Periosteum

E. Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

-Which bones belong to which?

F. Osteoporosis

a) Prevention

b) Excessive bone loss

c) Why is a lack of estrogen strongly involved?

IV. Muscular System

A. Muscle Physiology of Exercise

1. Aerobic:

a) Myoglobin

i.High affinity for oxygen

ii. May not provide enough O2

b) Glycogen stores broken down

- for aerobic respiration

c) ATP Stores decrease

d) Creative Phosphates decrease

2. Anaerobic respiration kicks in

a) Glycolysis

b) Fermentation creates lactic a cid

- Decreased pH leads to muscle soreness

c) Why do athletes create less lactic acid?

3. Oxygen Debt = Breathe heavily to increase oxygen intake

4. Require oxygen for more ATP for:

a) Conversion o f lactic acid to glycogen (in liver)

b) Replenish creatine Phos.(in muscle)

c) Conversion of lactic acid to pyruvate (in muscle)

B. Muscle Structure

1. Fasicles surrounded by connective tissue

-bundles of muscle fibers

2. Muscle Fibers = muscle cells

3. Myofibrils in cytoplasm of muscle fiber

4. Myofilaments comprise muscle fibrils

a) Thin myofilaments - Actin with tropomyosin and troponin

b) Thick myofilaments = Myosin with head pieces

c) Sarcomeres = one contraction unit

d) Striations due to:

i. A band

ii. I-band

iii. H-zone

iv. Z-line

-What happens to each of these when a muscle contracts?

C. Contraction

1. Neurons ennervate muscle cells

- Produce neurotransmitter (NT)

2.Sarcolemma depolarized when NT binds

3. T-Tubules depolarized

4. Sarcoplasmic reticul. releases Ca++

5. Ca++ binds Troponin

-Troponin shape change

6. Tropomyosin moved away from G-site on Actin

7. Myosin head piece + Actin at G-site

8. ATP Hydrolysis --> E release

*Myosin head piece bends

a) Pulls actin

b) Sarcomeres shorten

9. Headpieces bind more ATP and release G-site

9. If impulse continues

a) Headpieces grab G-sites further and further away form original G-site

b) Attain maximal contraction

10. What happens to cause muscle relaxation?

D. What happens during:

1. Muscle cramp?

2. Rigor mortis?

Chapter 39

Nervous System

I. Neurons

A. Neuron Structure

1. Dendrite

2. Neuron cell body

3. Axon

B. Types of Neurons

1.Sensory

2. Motor

3. Interneuron

C. Nerve Fibers (what is a nerve?)

1. Afferent nerve?

2. Efferent nerve?

II. Impulse conduction

A. Resting Potential

1. Inside neuron = -70mV

2. Na+/K+ ATPase pump

a) 3 Na+ out/2K+ in

b)1 ATP hydrolyzed

3. K+ channel protein leaky

4. Na+ channel protein closed

B. Action Potential

1. Threshold = -55mV

2. Na+ channel opens (voltage-gated)

- Na+ rushes in with gradient

3. +30 mV inside neuron

4. K+ channel opens (voltage-gated)

-K+ passes out with gradient

C. Phases of Single Action Potential

a) -70mV = Polarization

b) -70mV to +30 mV = Depolarization

c) +30 mV to -70mV = Repolarization

d) -90mV = Hyperpolarization

i. K+ channels still open

ii. Na+ channel closed

e) Be able to reproduce graph

D. Saltatory conduction

1. Myelin sheath around axons

- Schwann cell membrane is sheath

2. Nodes of Ranvier = No myelin

- Channel proteins found here

3. Impulse moves from node to node due to myelin

- Faster conduction

5. Less energy required

-Why?

III.Synapse between Neurons

A. Impulse Conduction

1. Presynaptic Knob

* increase in intracellular Ca++ as impulse arrives

2. Exocytosis of Neurotransmitter (NT)

3. NT travels across synaptic cleft

4. NT binds receptors

- on post-synaptic dendrite

5. Chemically-gated ion channels on post-synaptic dendrite

a) Open due to NT binding

b) Ions move in

7. Voltage gated channels open next

B. Neurotransmitters

1.Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) a) Inhibitory NT

b) Opens K+ channel proteins for hyperpolarization

2. Acetylcholine (Ach)

a) Excitatory

b) Acetylcholinesterase

i. Degrades ACh in cleft

ii. Prevents continuous activation of post-synaptic neuron

iii. Uptake of Ach fragments by pinocytosis

C. Neuronal Integration

-What is this?

Chapter 40 Nervous Systems

I. Central Nervous System

A. Spinal cord

1. Gray matter in middle

2. White matter on periphery

-Ascending and descending tracts

3. Dorsal = Sensory nerves

4. Ventral = Motor nerves

5. Central canal with Cerebrospinal fluid

a) Found in subarachnoid space and central canal

b) Cushions CNS

c) Exchange of nutrients and wastes

6. Spinal nerves extend from spinal cord (31 prs)

B. Meninges

1. Cover entire CNS

2. Dura mater = Outer

3. Arachnoid

4. Subarachnoid space continuous throughout CNS

a) Cerebrospinal fluid

b) Made by choroid plexus

i.Specialized blood vessels

ii. in ventricles of brain

iii. Blood-brain barrier

5. Pia mater = vascularized

C. Brain

1.Hindbrain

a) Medulla

i. All ascending and descending nerve tracts

ii. What control centers are here?

b) Pons

i. All ascending and descending nerve tracts

ii. What control centers are here?

iii. Sends nerve tracts to cerebellum

c) Cerebellum

i. Two hemispheres

ii. Compares actual with intended movements

iii. Receives sensory signals about movement

iv. Integrates info. and sends to cerebrum

B. Midbrain = Visual and auditory reflexes

1. Pupil reflex

2. Blink

3. Auditory reflex

-Ossicles

C. Brainstem = Medulla, Pons, Tegmentum

D. Forebrain

1. Hypothalamus

a) Production of hormones

b) Regulation of what body functions?

c) Control of pituitary

2. Thalamus = Collects and sends sensory input to cerebrum

-Especially visual and inner ear

3. Cerebrum

a) Divided by Longitdinal fissure

b) Hemispheres connected by Corpus callosum

c) Cerebral Cortex

i. Frontal Lobe = motor cortex

ii. Temporal Lobe = auditory cortex

iii. Parietal Lobe = somato-

sensory cortex

- More neurons associated with most sensitive parts of body

- info. for sense of touch processed here

iv. Occipital Lobe = visual cortex

4. Sleep-wake cycles due to Reticular Activating System

i. Thalamus

ii. Brainstem

iii. Controls consciousness

iv. Communicates with cerebrum

v. What happens if damaged?

Not on test:

iv. Sleep center = Raphe nuclei

-Production of serotonin (sleep NT)

v. When RAS fatigues, Raphe nuclei activated

vi. When Raphe nuclei fatigue, RAS becomes excitatory

5. Brain Waves detected with EEG (Be able to describe)

a) A lpha

b) Beta

c) Delta

d) Theta

6. REM vs. non-REM sleep

7. Limbic System

1. Hypothalamus, Cerebrum, Thalamus

2. Emotion and instinctive behavior

3. Amygdala = Rage

4. Hippocampus = short term memory

RD. SCI. AM. ARTICLE

E. Brain Asymmetry (Cerebral dominance)

1. Rt. Hemisphere dominant:

a) Drawing abilities

b) Spatial relationships

c) Melody recognition

2. Left Hemishere Dominant

a) 98 % of people

b) Reading, speaking, learning

II. Peripheral Nervous System

A. Autonomic Nervous System

1. Involuntary control

2. Glands & involuntary muscles innervated

3. Two Branches (Antagonistic)

a) Parasympathetic

i.What structures innervated?

ii. Every day functions

b) Sympathetic

i.What structures innervated?

ii. Fight -or - Flight responses

B. Somatic Nervous System

1. Sensory nerves of skin

3. Nerves of skeletal muscle

- Voluntary control

4. 31 prs of spinal nerves

Chapter 41 The Sense Organs

I. Sense Organs

A. Types (Give examples)

1. Photoreceptors

2. Thermo receptors

3. Mechanoreceptors

4. Chemoreceptors

B. Receptor Function

1. Stimulus --->Transduction by receptor

2. Action potentialgenerated

3. Passed to Sensory nerves

4. Carried to CNS

5. Sensory Adaptation

a) touch = fast

i. Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure)

ii. Meissner's corpuscle (light touch)

b) pain=slow

6. Pain perception

Rd. pp. 896 & 897

a) Substance P - neurotransmitter where?

b) Analgesics inhibit release

- Morphine, aspirin

c) Natural opiates

- b-endorphins

d) Impulse pathway: Receptors--> Spinal cord-->Thalamus-->Parietal lobe

C. Vision

1. Know structures:

a) Cornea

b) Iris

c) Lens

d) Retina

e) Optic Nerve

2. Cornea and lens determine where light hits retina

a) Get reversed and upside down image

b) brain flips image upright

c) cornea = fixed shape

d) lens = changes via ciliary muscles

i.Accomodation = alter curvature of lens

ii. Presbyopia in older folks -lens loses flexibility

iii. Cataracts due mostly to?

3. Photoreceptors in retina

a) Rods (night vision)

i.Activated in dim light

ii. Rhodopsin --> Opsin + Retinal -->Action Potential

b) Cones

i.visual acuity

ii. color vision

iii. Requires bright light

iv. Iodopsin breakdown --> action potential

4. Myopia

a) Eyeball too long

b) Near sighted

c) Light converges in front of retina

5. Retina--> Optic nerve -->Optic chiasma-->Thalamus-->Visual cortex

D. The Ear

1. Two sense organs in inner ear

a) Hearing (Cochlea)

b) Balance

i. Vestibular apparatus

ii. Mechanoreceptors bent by endolymph

-in semicircular canals

c) Vestib. apparatus --> Vestibular nerve-->Thalamus---> Cerebellum

2. Hearing

a) Sound waves enter outer ear canal

b) Middle Ear

i.Tympanic membrane vibrates

ii. Ossicles (Maleus, incus, stapes)

iii. Eustachian tube function?

- P.E. tubes

d) Cochlea = inner ear

i. Oval window

ii. Waves in Perilymph

-Push on basilar membrane

iii. Organ of Corti

- Hair cells bend against Tectorial membrane

e) Hair cells-->Cochlear nerve--> Thalamus-->Temporal lobe

Chapter 44

Gas Exchange and Transport

I. What are the gaseous constituents of air?

II. Lung Ventilation

A. Inhale via Neg. Pressure

1. Diaphragm contracts

2. Intercostal muscles contract

3. Air pulled in by vacuum

B. Exhale -

1. Muscles relax

2. Chest walls press on lungs

III. Respiratory Structures

1. External nares, nasal cavaties

a) Hair and cilia

b) Lined with mucus membrane

2. Pharynx

a) Respiratory. & digestive structure

b) Muscular

c) Naso- and oropharynx

3. Larynx (Voice box)

a) Epiglottis

-How does this prevent choking?

b) Glottis

c) Vocal cords

i. How is sound created?

ii. Why do men have lower voices?

4.Trachea (Windpipe)

a) Cartilaginous rings protect

b) Ciliated cells inside

c ) Mucus membrane lining

5. 1o , 2o Bronchi. bronchioles

a) Cartilaginous rings protect

b) Ciliated cells, mucus

6. Alveolar Sacs

a) Huge surface area

b) Contain alveoli

c) Alveolar cells = simple squamous epithelium

d) Many capillaries surround

i. Single cell thick (endothelium)

ii. gas exchange easier

8. Pleural membrane surrounds lungs and pleural cavity

-Function?

9. How many lobes associated with each lung?

IV. Gas Transport

A. Partial pressure (mm Hg)

1. PO2 in blood

a) Tissues = 40 mmHg

b) Alveolar air = 100 mm Hg

2. Dissociation curves

a) Lower pH = Bohr effect

i. O2 dissociates from Hb

ii. Low pH around cells

-Due to CO2 production

ii. Curve skewed to right at lower pH

b) Myoglobin in muscle

i. Higher affinity for O2 than Hb

ii. Curve skewed to left

B. Carbon monoxide = Higher affinity for Hb than O2

-Symptoms?

C. CO2

1. Mostly ionized in blood:

H2O + C O2 ---> H2C O3---> H+ + HC O2-

-Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase (in RBC)

2. KHb buffer for H2CO3

KHb + H2CO3 ------> HHb + KHCO3

(strong acid) (weak acid)

3. Control of breathing rate

a) Aortic and carotid bodies

i. Chemoreceptors

ii. Detect increases in blood CO2 and decreases in H+

b) Repiratory center in Medulla

i.Receives impulses from chemoreceptors

ii. Sends sympathetic impulses to breathing muscles

4. Respiratory Acidosis ` a) Increased blood CO2 =

b) Possible reasons?

c)Respond by increased breathing rate

i. Sympathetic impulse

ii. Exhale more CO2

d) 7.35 = acute

5. Resp. Alkalosis

a) Low blood CO2 =

b) Possible reasons?

c) Response = decrease breathing rate

i. Parasympathetic impulse

ii. Retain more CO2

d) pH 7.5 is acute

Chapter 45 - Digestive System

I. Digestion

A. Two types of digestion

1. Physical Breakdown

a) Mastication

b) Churning of stomach

2. Chemical breakdown

a) Digestive enzymes

b) Stomach acid

B. Structures Assoc. with Mouth

1. Teeth

2. Tongue with taste buds

3. Salivary Glands

-salivary amylase digests starch

C. Pharynx

1. Respiratory and Digestive

2. Muscular

D. Esophagus

1. Peristaltic contraction

2. Muscular

a) Circular

b) Longitudinal

E. Stomach

1. Cardiac sphincter

-What causes opening?

2. Rugae with stretch receptors

3. Chyme contents

a) HCl (Parietal cells)

b) Pepsinogen-¦ pepsin i.Chief cells

ii. What is a zymogen?

c) Mucus from simple columnar epithelial cells

d) Food

2. Pyloric Sphincter

-regulates chyme exit

F. Small Intestine

1. Duodenum ¦ Digestion mostly

a) Goblet cells = mucus

b) Bile from liver

i. Why yellow?

ii. Mechanical breakdown of fats

c) Pancreatic Secretions

i. Digestive enzymes

-Lipases

-Glucosidases

-Proteases

ii. Na bicarbonate

-Why?

2. Rest of Sm. Intestine functions in Absorption

a) Villi increase surface area

b) Microvilli on luminal surface of cells

G. Nutrients that we cannot make 1. Minerals = non-organic

a) Essential elements?

b) Trace elements = Require less than 100 mg/day

c) Many different functions:

i.Enzyme co-factors

ii. Bones and teeth structure

iii. Nerve impulse transmission

2. Vitamins = Organic

a) Know general functions

b) Water Soluble are easily excreted

i.B complex

-Coenzymes

ii. Vit. C required for collagen synthesis

-Scurvy = deficiency

c) Fat Soluble tend to accumulate in cell membranes

I. Vit. A = visual pigment in rhodopsin

ii. Vit. D = Increases intestinal absorption of Ca++ & Phos.

-Rickets = deficiency

iii. Vit. K = Coenzyme for prothrombin synthesis

-Supplied by intestinal bacteria

iv. Vit. E = anti-oxidant

H. Large Intestine

1. H2O Reabsorbed

2. Ion Regulation

-Na+ absorption here

3. Waste elimination

Content of feces:

a) 25% solid material

i. Mutualistic bacteria

ii. Undigested food

iii. Cells of digestive tract lining

b) 75% water

4. Excretion vs. Elimination

-What's the difference?

H. Functions of Digestive System

1. Ingestion

2. Storage and transport

3. Physical and Chemical breakdown

4. Absorption

5. Conc. and evacuation of wastes

III. Auxilliary Digestive Organs

A. Gall Bladder

1. Bile Storage and concentration

2. Gall Stones if too much fat in diet

3. Connected to liver by bile duct

-Blockage = jaundice

B. Liver

1. Breaks down toxins and old RBCs

2. Glucose Regulation

a) Insulin release ------> Glycogenesis in hepatocytes

3. Glucagon release -----> glycogenolysis in hepatocytes

4. Hepatic Portal System

a) Intestinal capillaries

b) Hepatic Portal vein

c) Liver sinusoids

d) Hepatic vein

e) Inferior vena cava

C. Pancreas

1. Digestive enzymes secreted = Exocrine

2. Hormones secreted = Endocrine

a) Insulin decreases blood glucose

b) Glucagon increases blood glucose

Chapter 42

Circulatory System

I. Heart

A. Circulation Around Heart:

Sup & Inf. Vena Cava-->R. A.trium-> R.Vent.-->PulmonaryArteries -> Lungs ¦ Pulmon. Veins-->L. Atrium ---->L.Vent. ----->

Aorta-¦Body

B. Coronary Arteries

1. Feed Ht. Muscle

2. Myocardial infarction if blocked

-Do bypass

C. Heart Beat

1. Cardiac Cycle (0.8 sec.)

a) Atria and ventricles relaxed for 0.4 sec.

i. Atria are filling

ii. Ventricles fill to 75%

b) Atria contract

c) AV valves close as ventricles fill completely

d) Ventricles contract

e) Aortic and pulmonary valves close

2. Heart Contraction Independent

a) S.A. node -->S.A. fibers --> Atria contract

b) S.A. Node -->A.V. Node--> AV Bundle --->Purkinje fibers --> Ventricles contract

e) Rapid depolarization because of intercalated discs

3. Cardiac center in Medulla

a) Regulates heart rate

b) Vagus nerve ---> SA Node

D. Valves prevent back flow

a) AV valves

b) Pulmonary valve

c) Aortic valve

d) Produce heart sounds

e) Heart Murmur = Faulty valve

II. Blood Measurements

A. Blood pressure

1. Systolic Pressure/Diastolic Pressure

-Be able to define

2. Normal = 120/80

3. Measured at Brachial artery

a) mm Hg

b) Sphygmomanometer

4. Hypertension = 140/90

5. Control of blood pressure

a) Baroreceptors

-Where?

b) High B.P.

i. Cardiac center --> Parasympathetic --> Heart slows

ii. Vasomotor center --> inhibit Sympath. ---> arterioles dilate

B. Pulse

1. Carotid and Radial arteries

2. None in veins

3. Due to elasticity of arteries

4. What are the pressures in the aorta and veins?

C. Cardiac Output

1. stroke vol. x beats/min.

2. Average CO = 5 liters

3. Decreases if heart damaged

4. Why do athletes have slower heart rates?

III. Blood Vessels

A. Arteries take blood away from heart

1. Normally carry oxygenated blood

- Exception?

2. Arteries --> arterioles --> capillaries

B. Veins take blood to heart

1. Normally carry deoxygenated blood

- Exception?

2. Valves in lower extremities prevent backflow

- also muscle contraction

4. Capillaries --> Venules --> Veins

C. Capillary Function

1. One cell thick for diffusion

2. Arteriole end

a) High Hydrostatic pressure

b) Water exits with dissolved nutrients

-becomes interstitial fluid

3. Venule end

a) Lower Hydrostatic pressure

b) High Osmotic pressure

c) H2O enters with dissolved wastes

III. Blood

A. Contents

1. Plasma - 55%

2. RBC - 45%

B. Red blood Cells

1.Hematopoiesis

a) Low O2 in blood leads to Erythropoietin release

-from kidney

b) Stimulation of bone marrow stem cells

b) RBC production

2. Anemia

a) Low Hb and RBCs

b) Low O2 in blood

c) Decrease in ATP made

d) Symptoms?

3. Hematocrit

a ) Average male?

b) Average female?

4. No nucleus

5. Full of Hb (280 million/RBC)

6. Life span = 120 days

7. Broken down by

a) Liver

b) Spleen

C. White Blood Cells = Leukocytes

1. 7, 000 - 10,000/ ml

2. Involved in immune protection

3. Monocytes

a) Phagocytic

b) Enter tissues and become macrophages

4. Lymphocytes = direct immune response

5. Neutrophils = phagocytic

6. Basophils = allergy

7. Eosinophils = parasitic reactions

D. Platelets

1. From Megakaryocytes (stem cells)

-Fragments, not true cells

2. Aggregate upon injury

a) Become sticky and form weak plug

b) Bind subendothelium

3. Coagulation Cascade

a) Injured cells release tissue factors

b) Many proteases activated

b) Bottom of cascade

i.Prothrombin -->Thrombin

ii. Fibrinogen (soluble) ¦ Fibrin (insoluble)

-Fibrin net wraps around cells and plasma ¦ clot

E. Plasma

a)Mostly water

b) Proteins:

i. Albumin

ii. Antibodies

iii. Fibrinogen

c) Dissolved substances

IV. Lymphatic System

A. Structures

1. Bone Marrow

-Lymphocytes made

2. Thymus

a) Maturation of T-cells

b)Shrinks with age

3. Spleen

a) Filters foreign substances from blood

b) Full of mf & lymphocytes

4. Lymph nodes

a) Filters foreign substances out of lymph

b) Full of lympho. & mf

E. Lymph

1. Formed from interstitial fluid

a) Goes into lymphatic capillaries

b) 10% of interstitial fluid

2. Recycled back into blood thru Thoracic Duct

3. How is lymph different from blood plasma?

F. Lymphatic vessels

-Similar to veins

Chapter 42

Immune System

I. Nonspecific (Innate )Immunity

A. No genetic change in immune cells

B. Skin, mucus membranes

1. Barriers

2. Lysozyme in body secretions

C. Stomach acid

D. Inflammation

1. Release of histamine

2. Blood vessel dilation

3 . Phagocytes enter tissues

4. Why these symptoms?

a) Heat

b) Redness

c) Pain

d) Swelling (edema)

II. Specific Immunity (Acquired) Immunity

A. Cellular Branch

1. Macrophage

a) Ingests foreign substance

b) Phagosome fuses with lysosome

c) Digestion into bacterial peptides

d) Peptide presented on MHC (on mf membrane)

2. T cell

a) Made in bone marrow but matures in thymus

b) Specificity due to development of TCR

c) TCR binds to MHC/peptide complex on mf

d)T-helper activated

i. Rapid mitotic division

ii. Cytokines produced

-Activate or inhibit other immune cells

B. Humoral Branch

1. B-lymphocyte made in and mature in bone marrow

2. Acquire specific receptors (Ig receptors)

a) Bind foreign substance

-Specificity

b) Interleukin-4 from T-cell binds B-cell via IL-4 receptor

2. Plasma cell clones form

a) Secrete Abs

b) Abs have same specificity as Ig receptors on B-cell

c) Abs bind foreign Antigen (Ag)

3. mf ingests Ag/Ab complex

C. Memory Response (be familiar with graph given)

1. SomeT and B-cells form Memory cells

-After 1st exposure to Ag

2. Upon 2nd exposure get response which is:

a) Longer lasting

b) Greater in magnitude

c) Quicker

3. This is the principle of vaccination

a) Heat-killed organism primes memory response

b) Natural exposure promotes memory

D. Active Immunity = make own Ab

1. Natural = infection

2. Artificial = vaccine

E. Passive Immunity = borrowed response

1. Natural

a) Ab crosses placenta to fetus

b) Ab in breast milk

2. Artificial

a) g-globulin shot

b) Bone marrow transplant

Chapter 46 - Excretion

I. Excretion of

1. Nitrogenous wastes = Urea

a) Deamination of amino acids

b) Produce ammonia = toxic

2. Other Substances?

II. Excretory Structures

1. Kidney

2. Ureters

3. Urinary Bladder

4. Urethra

5. Renal Vein and artery

B. Kidney Regions

1. Cortex with nephrons

2. Medulla with renal pyramids

3. Renal Pelvis

C. The Nephron

1. Renal Corpuscle

a) Bowman's Capsule

b) Glomerulus

2. Prox. Convoluted. Tubules

3. Loop of Henle

4. Distal Convol. Tubule

5. Blood supply

a) Afferent Arteriole

b) Efferent Arteriole

c) Peritubular Capillaries

6. 1 million per kidney

III. Kidney Function

A. Filtration

1. Bowman's

a) Podocytes on inner wall

b) Filtration slits between cells

2. Glomerulus

a) Fenestrations

b) Glomerulous 100x more porous than capillaries

3. High hydrostatic pressure at afferent arteriole

a) Afferent lgr in diameter than efferent

b) Generates pressure for filtration

B. Reabsorption

1. 99% of urinary filtrate reabsorbed

2. Prox. Convol. Tubule

a) Active Transport of Ions

b) Water follows

c) 60% reabsorption here

Don't need to know:

d) Renal threshold

i.What is this?

ii. The threshold for glucose is high

iii. The threshold for urea is low

3. Loop of Henle

a)Countercurrent Mech.

-Juxtamedullary nephrons

b) Ascending Limb

i. Cl- and Na+ out

ii. H2O stays in

c) Surrounding tissues very salty

d) Descending Limb

i. H2O exits and is reabsorbed by peritub. capill.

ii. Cl- & Na+ stay in

e) mosmoles

i. Bottom of loop 1200

ii. Top of loop 100

4. Collecting tubules and renal pelvis

a) Continued reabsorption

b) Due to salty environ. of medulla

5. Hormones

a) Aldosterone

i.From Adrenal gland

ii. Target = collecting ducts & distal convol. tubules

iii. Increases Na+ reabsorption

iv. Increases blood pressure -How?

b) Antidiuretic Hormone

i. Increases reabsorp. of water

ii. Target = collecting ducts

iii. Released from Pituitary due to osmoreceptors

-in hypothalamus

-Release ADHRF

iv. How does it increase blood pressure?

v. What is a diuretic?

C. Secretion

1. Release of substances by kidney cells into the filtrate

2. CO2 from blood diffuses into tubule cells

2. CO2 + H2O ----> H2CO3

-Carbonic anhydrase

3. H2CO3 ---> H+ + HCO3-

4. H+ released into tubule lumen

5. Na+ leaves urine

a) Accompanied by HCO3-

b) Buffering of blood due to NaHCO3

IV. Hemodialysis

1. Cleanses the blood of toxins

2. How does it do it?

Chapter 47 The Endocrine System

I. Mechanisms for Signal Transfer

A. Nervous Tissue

-Quick, Short-lived

B. Hormones

-Secreted into blood, slower response

II. Hypothalamus

A. Neurohormones

1. Synthesized in Hypothalamus

2. Stored in Posterior Pituitary

-flow down axons thru pituitary stalk

B. Releasing and Inhibitory Factors

1. Synthesis in Hypothal.

2. Travel to Ant. Pituitary

-via portal vein thru pitu. stalk

3. Release or inhibition of hormones

III. Pituitary Gland

A. Posterior Lobe

1. ADH

2. Oxytocin

a) Milk let-down

-smooth muscles contract around mammary glands

b) Contractions of Labor

B. Anterior Lobe

1. Growth Hormone

a) Stim. protein synthesis b) Gigantism

c) Dwarfism

2.Thyroid Stim. Hormone (TSH)

3. Prolactin = milk production in mammary glands

4. Gonadotropins

-FSH and LH

III. Thyroid Gland

A. Thyroxine (T4)

1. Control of metabolic rate.

2. Negative Feedback

a) High levels of T4

i. Lowers Thyrotropin RF (TRF)

ii. Inhibits TSH

iii. T4 levels decrease

b) Low levels of T4

i. TSH and TRF not inhibited

ii. T4 levels increase

3. Four iodine molecules

4. Goiter

a) Lack of iodine

b) Not enough T4

c) Overstimulation by TSH

B. Calcitonin

1. Reduces blood Ca++

-Inhibits osteoclast activity

2. Antagonist to PTH

IV. Parathyroid Gland

1. Parathyroid Hormone

2. Increases blood calcium by:

a) Osteoclasts

b) Ca++ reabsorp. by kidney

c) Activation of Vit. D

3. Assoc. with connective tissue of thyroid

V. Pancreas

A. Insulin

1. Beta cells

-Islets of Langerhans

2. Increase glucose uptake by cells

3. Increase in glycogen synthesis = Glycogenesis

-Mostly by hepatocytes

4. Decrease in blood glucose

B. Glucagon

1. Alpha cells

-Islets of Langerhans

2. Glycogenolysis

- Mostly by hepatocyte

3. Increase in blood glucose

C. Diabetes mellitis

1. Juvenile onset (Type I)

a) Autoimmune response to beta-cells

b) No insulin made

2. Very high blood glucose

a) Renal threshold of glucose exceeded

b) Water follows glucose

3. b-oxidation of fats to make ATP

a) Ketones in blood and urine

i. metabolic acids

ii. Water follows ketones

b) Decreased blood pH

c) Brain cells can't tolerate ---> coma

4. Symptoms

a) Polydypsia (Why?)

b) Polyphagia (Why?)

c) Polyuria (Why?)

5. Insulin shock:

a) Take insulin w/o eating

b) No glucose for brain cells ----->Confusion

d) How is this remedied?

VI. Adrenal Gland

A. Adrenal Cortex (Steroids)

1. Based on cholesterol -hydrophobic

2. Glucocorticoids

i. Ex = Cortisol

ii. Increase blood sugar

iii. Anti-inflammatory

iv. Produced due to stress

3. Mineralocorticoids Ex = Aldosterone 4. Androgens

i. Also made in testes

ii. Precursor to testosterone

iii. Women have small quantities

B. Adrenal Medulla

1. Adrenalin & Norepineph.

2. Secreted due to stress

a) Autonomic nervous system triggers release of hormones

b) Increase blood sugar

c) Fight or Flight response

VIII. Hormone Action

A. Signal Transduction

1. Hormone (Polypeptide) binds receptor on cell surface

2. Activation of G-Protein in membrane

3. G protein activates Adenylate cyclase

4. ATP converted to cAMP

a) cAMP is a "2nd messanger"

b) Cascade of enzymes

i. Kinases = phosphorylate other proteins

ii. Phosphorylases

-phosphorylate & cleave a glucose from glycogen

5. Result if hormone is glucagon

-Glucose transported into blood

6. Know hand-out I gave you

C. Steroid Hormones

1. Steroid passes thru membrane

2. Steroid picks up receptor in nucleus

3. Receptor binds DNA (transcription factor)

a) Gene activation

b) Transcription

c) Translation of proteins

Chapter 48

Reproduction

I. Male Reproduction

A. Testes (in scrotum)

1. Seminiferous tubules

a) Sperm production

-Nurse cells nourish

b) Testosterone production

i.Interstitial cells

ii. Secondary sexual characteristics

2. Epididymis

a) Sperm maturation

b) Sperm storage

B. Gonadotropins

1. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

- Stimulates spermatogenesis

2. Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

-Stim. testosterone production

C. Sperm

1. Three parts

a) Head

i. Nucleus

ii. Acrosome

b) Midpiece

-Mitochondria

c) Flagella

2. How many made/day?

3. How many reach egg?

4. Can live in the vagina 48 - 72 hrs.

D. Sperm transport

1. Seminiferous Tubules

2. Epididymis

3. Vas deferens

4. Ejaculatory duct of Prostate

5. Urethra

E. Seminal Fluid

1. Seminal vesicles

a) Alkaline

-Why?

b) Fructose

-Why?

c) Production of 60% of seminal fluid

2. Prostate

a) Named from prostaglandins

-What do these do?

b) Milky, Alkaline

c) Glucose and fructose

3. Bulbourethral gland

a) Thick mucous

b) Lubrication for penetration of vagina

F. Erection

1. Spongy, erectile tissue

-cavernous bodies

2. Arterial blood flow increases

a) Dorsal arteries dilate

b) Autonomic control

-Parasympathetic

3. Veins compressed

G. Ejaculation

1. Peristaltic contractions

2. Forceful ejection of semen in muscular pulses

-Sympathetic impulses

II. Female Reproduction

A. Structures

1. Externals = vulva

a) Labia minora

b) Labia majora

c) Clitoris

d) Opening to vagina

e) Opening to urethra

2. Ovaries

a) Eggs (Ova)

b) Estrogen & Progesterone

-Produced by follicle cells

3. Fallopian Tubes

a) Fimbriae

-What are these?

b) Fertilization occurs here

-Approx. 1/3 down

4. Uterus

a) Body

b) .Cervix

i. Pap smear

ii. Dilates during birth

c) Endometrium

5. Vagina = Muscular canal

B. Menstrual Cycle

1. Menstruation (4-6 days)

-1st day of period is 1st day of cycle

2. Preovulatory Phase (~ day 5 -13)

a) FSH = released from Pituitary

i. Stimulation of follicle and ovum

ii. Follicle secretes estrogen

iii. Endometrium develops ¦ more vascularized

3. Ovulation

a) Positive feedback due to high estrogen levels

b)Pituitary releases LH -Day 14 or 15

c) Egg released

4. Postovulatory Phase

a) Follicle becomes Corpus Luteum (CL)

b) Estrogen and Progesterone secretion by CL

i.Endometrium further developed

ii. Glands secrete nutrients.

C. No pregnancy

a) High levels of estrogen and progesterone

i. Inhibition of GRF

ii. Inhib. of Gonadotropins

b) CL degenerates¦No estrogen or progesterone made

c) Endometrium sloughs off

-Menstruation

D. Pregnancy

1. Implantation of embryo into wall of endometrium

~ 7 days after fertilization

2. Chorionic membrane surrounds embryo

a) Secretion of Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

b) HCG keeps CL alive

i.Estrogen and Progesterone secreted

ii. Endometrium maintained

Note: HCG in urine is basis of many pregnancy tests

IV. Ovum in Meiotic Arrest

1. Eggs arrested@ Prophase I

-during embryonic develop.

2. FSH stimulates meiosis thru Metaphase II

3. Penetration of sperm triggers completion of meiosis

Chapter 49

Development

I. Ovum Morphology

1. Zona pellucida

2. Vitelline membrane

II. Fertilization (sea urchin)

A. Acrosome reaction

1. Sperm head touches zona

2. Enzyme released from acrosome

-due to calcium movement into acrosome

3. Zona pellucida dissolved

B. Acrosomal Process

1. Actin assembly in acrosomal process

2. Fusion of vitelline + acrosome:

a) Bindin on acrosomal process

b) Receptor on vitell. memb. (Species specific)

c) Enzymes dissolve vitelline in spots

C. Sperm entry

1. Fertilization cone forms a) plasma membrane has microvilli

-surround acrosome process

b) Contraction of cone

c) Sperm nucleus enters egg

2. Egg activation

a) Increased calcium influx

b) Greater oxygen utilization ----> make ATP

c) Burst of protein synthesis

D. Blockage of Polyspermy

1. Fast Block (a few seconds)

a) Calcium channels open in egg membrane

b) Depolarization repels sperm

2. Slow block (1 - 3 min.)

a) Calcium release from Cortical granules

b) Enzyme released

-digest protein between p.m. and vitelline

c) Water collects between membranes

d) Develop. of a fertilization membrane

E. Fusion of pronuclei

1. Sperm pronucleus moves to egg pronucleus

- via microtubules 2. Pronuclei fuse ---> Zygote

III. Early Development

A. Zygote

1. Rapid divisions

a) Start within 24 hrs.

b) Now an embryo

2. Cells get smaller and smaller

-easier for movement

B. Morula

1. 32 cells

2. Solid ball

3. Embryo reaches uterus

~3 days

C. Blastula (Blastocyst in mammals)

1. Several 100 cells

-Hollow ball

2. Implantation 7 days after conception

3. Trophoblast

a) Produces enzymes for implantation

b) Becomes the Chorion

4. Inner Cell Mass ¦ becomes the embryo proper

D. Extraembryonic Membranes

1. From inner cell mass a) Amnion

i. Amniotic fluid

-Function? ii. Amniocentesis

b) Yolk Sac

i. Contains yolk

ii. Is incorporated into umbilical cord in mammals

-location of blood vessel formation

2. Chorion

a) Villi grow from Chorion

b) Maternal blood supply surrounds villi (intervillus spaces)

i.Placenta

ii. Which materials can pass through?

iii. Which cannot?

c) Chorionic Villus Sampling

d) Umbilical cord

i. Two umbilical arteries

ii. One umbilical vein

E. Gastulation

1. Blastopore invaginates

-Becomes anus in Deuterostomes

2. Gut forms from archenteron

3. Three germ layers form (differentiation)

a) Ectoderm

b) Endoderm

c) Mesoderm

IV. Later development

A. Embryo = First 8 weeks

B. Fetus = 9 wks to birth

C. Developmental changes during each trimester

1. 1st trimester (all major organ systems develop)

a) heart develops and beats

b) Limb buds form

c) Tail forms (disappears by 2nd mo.)

d) Genitals differentiated

e) Breathing movements

f) Vertebral column

2. 2nd trimester

a) Feel baby move by 5th month

b) Can hear heart beat with stethoscope

3. 3rd trimester (premie if born before 37th wk)

a) Rapid growth of cerebrum

b) Sucking and grasping

c) Major weight gain

V. Three Stages of Labor

A. Dilation Stage

1. Contraction due to oxytocin release

2. Baby moves head first toward cervix

3. Amnion ruptures releasing ~1 liter of fluid

B. Expulsion Stage

1. Cervix dilated to 10 cm

2. Baby passes through birth canal

3. Cord clamped and cut

C. Stage of Placenta

1. Strong uterine contractions

Placenta expelled

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